Russian lexicography has accumulated significant experience in creating dictionaries and reference books of various types. Theoretically, the type of dictionary is determined by the information about the word that is basic for a given reference book. The practical classification of dictionaries looks somewhat more complicated. There are two classes of reference publications. These are philological dictionaries containing knowledge about the language, and encyclopedic reference books containing knowledge about the world.

The central object of description of philological (linguistic) dictionaries are language units. Dictionaries of the philological type store knowledge about the linguistic means used by people in their speech activity. Such dictionaries provide information that helps the reader pronounce a word correctly, express his speech in writing, and correctly understand a text written by someone. The use of language reference books allows a person to perform error-free speech acts so that the meaning contained in his statement is understandable to other people.

The central object of description of encyclopedic reference books are concepts associated with individual words, phrases, and knowledge about the world and people related to these concepts. Thus, encyclopedias and reference books characterize extra-linguistic realities, that is, our knowledge about objects and things, concepts related to natural and social phenomena is presented, biographies of people are given, information about important events is given, historical dates are indicated. Dictionaries of this type are a compendium about the world around us.

Within each class of publications, specific reference books may be characterized by additional properties that determine the type and quality of information contained in dictionary entries.

Directories are distinguished according to several parameters. These parameters can be combined in one dictionary or be a differentiating feature for dictionaries. Dictionaries are characterized by the object of description, the volume of the dictionary, the principles of selection of the dictionary, the conceptual and thematic composition of the dictionary, the order of arrangement of description units, and the addressing of the dictionary.

The object of description for encyclopedic class reference books is knowledge about extra-linguistic realities. For example, a linguistic encyclopedic dictionary contains knowledge about the languages ​​of the world, embodied in special concepts and terms that reflect specific properties and phenomena characteristic of a particular language, a group of languages, or all languages.

Dictionaries of the Russian language according to the object of description are also divided into two subclasses: dictionaries that describe the formal (morphological, syntactic) features of vocabulary, and dictionaries that describe the semantic features of the use of words in the text. In particular, dictionaries that describe the formal side of the use of vocabulary of the Russian language include dictionaries of morphemes, spelling, spelling dictionaries, dictionaries of difficulties (correctness), grammatical, syntactic dictionaries. Dictionaries that describe the lexical semantics of the Russian language include explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, phraseological dictionaries, and proverbial dictionaries.

The volume parameter of a dictionary takes into account not so much the quantitative composition of the dictionary as its qualitative composition. This means that small-volume dictionaries do not contain a small number of words, but only the most necessary, minimally sufficient vocabulary units with which you can characterize the object of the dictionary description. Dictionaries of medium size contain such a quantitative composition of the vocabulary, with the help of which the bulk of speech cases corresponding to the object of the dictionary description are described. Large-volume dictionaries cover the largest possible range of vocabulary units that make up the object of the dictionary description, and describe it with academic completeness.

The principles of vocabulary selection for Russian language dictionaries are an important differentiating parameter, which includes the selection of words on the basis of novelty, on the basis of synchrony and diachrony, on the basis of the regional existence of vocabulary, on the basis of the origin of words, on the basis of the fixation of words in the speech of a certain author or in a certain text. According to this parameter, a distinction is made between dictionaries formed according to the unity of stylistic characteristics (colloquial vocabulary, abusive vocabulary, everyday vocabulary) and dictionaries of a general type. A dictionary formed according to such predetermined principles can have both grammatical and semantic features of the selected vocabulary as an object of description.

According to the principles of vocabulary selection, encyclopedic class reference books are divided into encyclopedias, containing a compendium of knowledge, and industry reference books, containing special information from a particular field.

For dictionaries describing the lexical system of the Russian language, the conceptual and thematic composition of the dictionary is an important differentiating parameter. This parameter distinguishes between universal and aspect dictionaries. Among the aspect dictionaries there are dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms, dictionaries on onomastics and toponymy.

The conceptual and thematic composition of the vocabulary of encyclopedic reference books corresponds to the principles of vocabulary selection and differs in terms of universal and specialized.

According to the order of arrangement of units of description, alphabetical, reverse, ideographic, semantic, and thematic dictionaries are distinguished.

Dictionary addressing is an important parameter of reference publications. This parameter must be indicated in the annotation to any dictionary. Many other dictionary parameters depend on the categories of readers for which the dictionary is intended. Typically, reference publications are aimed at those who use a dictionary to master or study their native language in more depth, and at those for whom this language is a foreign language.

The purpose of spelling dictionaries is to provide information about the pronunciation, stress and formation of grammatical forms of each word included in the dictionary. Dictionaries of this type interpret the pronunciation norms of the literary language in relation to each unit of the vocabulary. For this purpose, a special system of regulatory guidelines is being developed, and prohibitive signs are being introduced. Depending on the volume of words included in it, such dictionaries can be intended for both specialists and the wider reader. For example, Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language. Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms (edited by R. I. Avanesov) is the most famous dictionary of this type. It is designed for specialists - philologists, Russian language teachers, lecturers, radio and television announcers, etc. For all other readers, the dictionary can be a reliable normative reference tool.

Dictionaries of this type contain information about the origin of words and the linguistic sources of their entry into our speech. Dictionaries that describe this aspect of the life of a word indicate the original language material, the original sound and meaning in the source language, and provide other additional information about the word that explains the conceptual content of the borrowed word. The immediate object of description of the etymological dictionary is borrowed vocabulary, which is accompanied by background information about the language source, the original forms of the word and its sound are reconstructed. The completeness of etymological information about a word varies depending on the intended readership. The reference publication, intended for specialists, is characterized by the maximum completeness of the dictionary, a detailed presentation of the life history of the word, and a broad argumentation of the proposed etymological interpretations. Educational etymological dictionaries, aimed at the general reader, have a smaller vocabulary consisting of the most frequent borrowed words of the literary language. Popular dictionaries give one version of the origin of the word and a brief, simplified argument for it. Popular etymological dictionaries of the Russian language are “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by G. P. Tsyganenko, “Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by V. V. Ivanov, T. V. Shanskaya and N. M. Shansky. The “Historical and Etymological Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language” by P. Ya. Chernykh is intended for the general reader. The most famous scientific publication, of course, is the Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language in 4 volumes by M. Vasmer.

As examples of general type dictionaries, we can point to ordinary explanatory and bilingual (translation) dictionaries, in which the vocabulary existing in the general literary layer of the language is described with varying degrees of completeness. When talking about general-type dictionaries, experts mean dictionaries of varying degrees of completeness, in which national, general literary vocabulary is interpreted in one way or another. Dictionaries of this type, of course, include Dictionary of the Russian Language in 4 volumes by D. N. Ushakov, Dictionary of the Russian Language by S. I. Ozhegov, Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language by S. I. Ozhegov, N. Yu. Shvedova, Modern Explanatory Dictionary Russian language S. A. Kuznetsova, Brief explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, ed. V.V. Rozanova, Small Explanatory Dictionary by V.V. Lopatin, L.E. Lopatina, etc. Dictionaries of the general type can, without a doubt, include all explanatory dictionaries that develop a separate lexical class of a common literary language. These are dictionaries foreign words, phraseological dictionaries, dictionaries of personal names, etc. General non-linguistic dictionaries include various encyclopedic reference books (for example, the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Encyclopedic Dictionary).

In the practice of written and oral speech, many people encounter difficulties of various kinds. These include: writing individual words, pronunciation of a word or choosing the place of stress in a certain word form, word usage corresponding to the specific meaning of the word, grammatical attribution of the word, choosing the correct form of case and number in a given speech situation, problems with the formation of short forms of adjectives, personal forms of the verb, syntactic and lexical compatibility of the word, etc. All these difficulties must be solved in dictionaries of difficulties. However, it is hardly possible to find an objective criterion for selecting language material for such a dictionary, especially when it comes to a dictionary intended for an indefinitely wide range of readers. When deciding on the composition of the vocabulary for such a publication, the compilers determine the circle of potential readers and those areas of word use that are most relevant to the intended readers. Dictionaries of difficulties include such cases that are described in spelling, grammatical and general philological dictionaries. The compilers of such dictionaries, naturally, rely on sources in which various spellings, pronunciations and word usage are recorded, and recommendations of a normative nature are given. An important role in the preparation of such reference books is played by the authors’ own research, supported by experience in observing the speech of educated people and experimental testing of “difficult” cases. This allows us to include in the dictionary words that, as a result of historical changes, exist in our speech in two versions: old and new, as well as new words, the pronunciation of which has not yet been established. As examples here we can point out such reference publications as: Kalenchuk M. L., Kasatkina R. F. Dictionary of Russian pronunciation difficulties: Ok. 15,000 words. M., 1997; Gorbachevich K. S. Dictionary of difficulties in pronunciation and stress in modern Russian: 1200 words. St. Petersburg, 2000; Verbitskaya L.A. and others. Let's speak correctly! Difficulties of modern Russian pronunciation and stress: A brief dictionary-reference book. M., 2003.

At the end of the 19th century, dictionaries were first published in Russia that included the characteristic “complete” in their names. As an example, we can point out the following publications: Orlov A.I. Complete philological dictionary of the Russian language with a detailed explanation of all the differences between spoken language and its written representation and indicating the meaning and replacement of all foreign words included in the Russian language with purely Russian words: In 2 volumes. M., 1884-1885; The most complete explanatory dictionary, which contains 200,000 foreign words included in the Russian language of our Russian literature / Comp. Kartashev, Velsky / Ed. Luchinsky. Ed. 9. - M., 1896-1897. - 208 p. In such cases, the word “complete” denoted a dictionary that presumably contains all the words found in Russian texts. Wondering what it actually means to compile a complete explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, Lev Uspensky wrote: “Try, by comparing ancient and newer lexicons of the all-Russian language, to find out where the countless new words and terms with which it has been replenished in recent years came from.” a hundred years. You will soon notice: the vast majority of them were not created at the desks of writers, nor through the inspiration of poets or linguists. They were born in the tense atmosphere of invention laboratories, in noisy factory workshops, in the fields where people work, simultaneously creating new things and new words needed to name them. (...) Who can say in advance which one professional words- will the word “prey”, different from the literary “prey” in the place of emphasis, or the expression “to the mountain”, used instead of the usual “to the mountain” or “up”, firmly enter into it tomorrow? Obviously, we need a dictionary of professional, industrial, special words and expressions.” In scientific classifications of dictionaries, the term “complete” refers to the type of publication that contains an exhaustive composition of those layers and categories of vocabulary that serve as the object of description of this reference book. In this sense, the Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed., can also be considered a full-type dictionary. V.V. Lopatin, and the Big Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed. S. A. Kuznetsova, and Dictionary of Pushkin’s language in 4 volumes, and Dictionary of modern Russian literary language in 17 volumes. By the nature of the selection of vocabulary, dictionaries of the full type are “Pskov Regional Dictionary”, “Dictionary of Bryansk Dialects”. They describe all the words (literary language and dialect) recorded in the speech of the indigenous inhabitants of a given territory. According to this criterion, reference publications such as “Systemic Dictionary of Subject-Based Vocabulary of the Talitsky District of the Sverdlovsk Region”, as well as “Complete Dictionary of the Siberian Dialect” or “Vershininsky Dictionary”, which describe the vocabulary of one village, can be classified as full-type dictionaries. Dictionaries of the full type are contrasted with dictionaries of the differential type. The vocabulary of such dictionaries is selected according to one differentiating parameter. This may be a sign of difficulty in verbal use of the word, limited scope of use of the word on a territorial, temporary, social, professional basis, etc.

Dictionaries of neologisms describe words, meanings of words and phrases that appeared in a certain (described) period. Developed languages ​​are actively replenished with new words. Research shows that the number of neologisms used in speech practice amounts to tens of thousands. With the advent of computer technologies that make it possible to process huge amounts of unstructured text information, there is a need for automatic analysis of word forms, including newly formed ones. This made the collection and description of new words especially relevant, which, in turn, led to the emergence of a new lexicographic branch of knowledge - neography. In the USSR, the first dictionary of this type “New words and meanings: Dictionary reference book (based on materials from the press and literature of the 60s)”, ed. N. Z. Kotelova, Yu. S. Sorokin was released in Leningrad in 1971. Since then, work on collecting and analyzing new vocabulary has been carried out on an ongoing basis. As an example, we can point out “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language of the Early 21st Century: Current Vocabulary”, ed. G. N. Sklyarevskaya.

Grammar dictionaries are dictionaries that contain information about the formal (inflectional and syntactic) properties of a word. The order of words in such dictionaries can be either direct, when words are arranged in alphabetical order from the first letter that begins the word to the last letter of the word, or reverse, when words are arranged in alphabetical order, starting with the last letter of the word. The reverse order allows readers to imagine the word-formation properties of the word. The principles of selection and the amount of information about a word are different depending on the purpose and addressee of each grammatical dictionary. One of the best dictionaries of this type is “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language. Word change" by A. A. Zaliznyak. It contains about 100 thousand words, arranged in reverse alphabetical order. For a detailed description of the complex system of inflection, formation and stress, the dictionary uses a unique system of indices that assign a word to a specific category.

Phraseological dictionaries contain phrases as headings of dictionary entries that are reproduced in speech practice in their entirety, without rearrangements or changes in their parts. Phraseological units are one of the most conservative categories of vocabulary. The specific properties of these linguistic units are determined by a number of important distinctive features: semantic integrity, stability and superverbal reproducibility. There are many phraseological dictionaries. Among them is “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language,” ed. A.I. Molotkova is by far the most complete dictionary. General educational dictionaries include “School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by V.P. Zhukov and A.V. Zhukov, Dictionary-Reference Book of Russian Phraseology” by R.I. Yarantsev. The most complete bilingual phraseological dictionary is the “French-Russian phraseological dictionary” by V. G. Gak et al.

Reference publications, distinguished by industry (i.e., professional) based on the limited scope of a word’s use, include dictionaries that interpret the meanings of words, and encyclopedic reference books that describe our knowledge about the world. As a dictionary of the first type, you can point to the “Explanatory Dictionary of Selected Medical Terms. Eponyms and figurative expressions” / Ed. L. P. Churilov, A. V. Kolobov, Yu. I. Stroev. There are many more examples of the second type, for example: “Naval Dictionary” / Ch. ed. V. N. Chernavin. - M.: Voenizdat, 1990; Encyclopedic publication “Political Science. Lexicon” /Editor A.I. Solovyov. M.: Russian Political Encyclopedia; Geography. Concepts and terms = Geography. Concepts and Terms: five-language academic dictionary: Russian, English, French, Spanish, German V. M. Kotlyakov, A. I. Komarova. M.: Nauka, 2007, etc.

The purpose of language reference books of this type is to indicate the standard spelling of a word that corresponds to the spelling rules. One of the first dictionaries of this type was published in 1813 under the title “Dictionary of Russian Orthography or Spelling.” Since then, many different general, industrial, and school dictionaries of this type have been published. The most complete general dictionary today is the “Russian Spelling Dictionary: about 180 thousand words, resp. ed. V.V. Lopatin. This is an academic dictionary that reflects Russian vocabulary in its state that developed by the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century. Heading words are given in their standard spelling, indicating stress and necessary grammatical information.

Dictionaries of this type contain information about the morphemic division of a word and its word-formation structure. Such reference books provide information about the structure of a word and the elements that make up the word. In word-formation dictionaries, words are collected both by root sockets and in alphabetical order. Some school dictionaries of this type provide characteristics of both the morphemic and word-formation structure of head words. This helps students better understand the questions that appear on the state final exam in the Russian language.

All dictionaries are divided into encyclopedic and linguistic. The encyclopedia presents in a concise form the current state of scientific knowledge in any field, that is, it describes the world, explains concepts, provides biographical information about famous personalities, information about cities and countries, historical events, etc.

The purpose of linguistic dictionaries is different - they contain information about the word.

There are various types of linguistic dictionaries: explanatory, dictionaries of foreign words, etymological, spelling, spelling, phraseological, dictionaries of synonyms, homonyms, antonyms, dictionaries of linguistic terms, syntactic dictionaries, etc.

Explanatory dictionaries describe the meaning of words: such dictionaries should be consulted if you need to find out what a word means. Widespread and famous is the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S. I. Ozhegov, N. Yu. Shvedova; “Dictionary of the Russian Language” in 4 volumes of the USSR Academy of Sciences (the so-called Small Academic). There is the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” in 17 volumes (the so-called Big Academic Dictionary) and the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language”, ed. D. N. Ushakova. There are also special school explanatory dictionaries.

A special place among explanatory dictionaries is occupied by V. I. Dahl’s “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language,” consisting of 4 volumes and containing more than 200 thousand words and 30 thousand proverbs, sayings, sayings, riddles, which are given as illustrations to explain the meanings of words. Although this dictionary is more than 100 years old, its value does not fade with time: Dahl’s dictionary is an inexhaustible treasury for all those who are interested in the history of the Russian people, their culture and language.

The origin of a word, its path in the language, historical changes in its composition are recorded by historical and etymological dictionaries (for example, “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by M. Fasmer, “School Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language: The Origin of Words” by N. M. Shansky, T A. Bobrova).

In phraseological dictionaries you can find descriptions of stable phrases, learn about their origin and use.

In 1967, ed. A. I. Molotkov published the first special “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language,” in which over 4,000 phraseological units are explained. In the mid-80s. The “School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by V.P. Zhukov, A.V. Zhukov was published, containing explanations of the most common phraseological units.

Information about the correct spelling of a word can be obtained in a spelling dictionary, and about the correct pronunciation - in a spelling dictionary.

There are grammatical dictionaries containing information about the morphological properties of a word.

There are dictionaries dedicated to the description of certain groups of vocabulary: synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms.

Lexicographers are working on compiling dictionaries of the language of writers; there is, for example, the “Dictionary of the Pushkin Language”.

Dictionaries of speech irregularities and difficulties help to avoid speech errors in the use of certain words or their forms.

Modern Russian literary language

Language as a social phenomenon performs, as already noted, various functions. To implement the basic functions of language (communication, message and influence), varieties of literary language have historically developed and taken shape, each of which is traditionally assigned in society to one of the spheres of life. Moreover, each type of area

gives certain characteristics and is contrasted with other similar varieties of literary language, which correlate with other spheres of life and have their own linguistic characteristics. These varieties are usually called functional styles. Having arisen on an extra-linguistic basis, styles differ from each other intra-linguistically.

these are the principles of selection, combination and organization of means from the national language. Currently, the following styles are distinguished: colloquial, which performs the function of communication, and bookish (scientific, official

business, journalistic and literary-artistic). Since functions in real communication are often intertwined, we can only talk about relative isolation, isolation of styles from each other.

friend. First of all, let's note what all styles have in common.

1. The main part of the language material in any style consists of neutral, inter-style means. At the same time, the core of each of them is formed by its own special linguistic means with the same

stylistic coloring, with uniform standards consumption. This is what determines the “face” of the style. For example, we will unmistakably classify the words molecule, compound, substance, element as scientific style, the words deputy,

elections, government, prime minister, etc. - to newspaper journalistic, and the words taxpayer, employee, employer, etc. - to official business.

2. There is close interaction and interpenetration between styles. For example, the combination “sign an agreement” can be used both in political sphere, and in the field of business relations.

A significant part of colloquial vocabulary is now used in different styles.

3. Each functional style has its own characteristics of using a general literary norm; it can exist both orally and in written form. Each style includes works of different genres that have their own specifics.

4. Each style is a special speech system with lexical and grammatical features characteristic only of it, subordinated to the fulfillment of some communicative task.

dachas Knowledge of the specifics of each style allows the speaker or writer to create a speech variant that is most appropriate and appropriate for a specific communication situation. A stylistic norm regulates the selection of certain words, word forms, sentences depending on the situation and the attitude of the speaker (writer) to what is being said or is written. The stylistic norm is associated with such a phenomenon as expressiveness. Expression gives

speech imagery and stylistic coloring. For example, in comparison with the neutral word apartment, the scope of which is practically unlimited, the words kommunalka and khrushchevka imply informality and ease of communication, in addition, in specific texts they can acquire an emotionally expressive quality.

coloring The stylistic coloring of a word can change over time. Many words that were previously rated as bookish are now perceived as neutral and do not have a mark in modern dictionaries (without

power, heroism, intuition, etc.), and words that previously had no stylistic connotation (for example, the word dancer in the meaning of ballet dancer) are given in modern dictionaries with the marks “special. and official."

Different stylistic colors of linguistic units make it possible to best express not only the content of speech, but also show how the interlocutors assess the situation and the purpose of communication, how they relate

to each other. If one style uses linguistic means typical of another, this leads to stylistic errors. The most common mistakes are related to stylistic incorrectness

word usage. These include the inappropriate use of clericalism, the abuse of special terms in non-scientific texts, and the use of colloquial and colloquial vocabulary in book texts. Stylistic errors spoil speech and often produce a comical impression. Compliance with stylistic norms in writing is especially important.

Literary language

This is a strictly standardized form of the popular national language.

The word “norm” itself (from Latin norma) means “guiding principle,

rule, sample" (Shchukin A.N. Lingvodidactic encyclopedic

dictionary: more than 2000 units / A. N. Shchukin. – M.: Astrel: AST: Guardian, 2007, p. 178).

In a literary language, everything is processed and normalized

its levels: phonetics (pronunciation and stress), vocabulary, grammar,

writing, word formation, etc.

“Accepted in the social and speech practice of educated people

rules of pronunciation, word usage, traditional use

established grammatical, stylistic and other means"

(Shchukin A.N. Linguodidactic Dictionary: more than 2000 units / A.N.

Shchukin. – M.: Astrel: AST: Guardian, 2007, p. 178) called language

norm of literary language.

There are pronunciation, lexical, spelling,

word formation, grammatical and others.

The linguistic norm (or literary norm) is one of the most important

for stability, unity and originality of the national language. She

characterized by:

Prevalence,

Relative stability

General obligation,

– variability.

The prevalence of norms is determined by the fact that:

The norm is accepted (used) in the speech of most native speakers and

assessed in their minds as the most commonly used and exemplary

(correct) language means;

It is consciously supported by the speech practice of educated

Relative stability is associated with two factors.

Firstly, the norm is stable, and this is evidenced by the fact that

that it is always in the language. In other words, the norm exists in a literary language in any historical period of its development.

Secondly, this stability is relative, because norm - category

historical, i.e. changing. This means that, being to a certain extent

sustainable, stable, the norm is at the same time subject to change. The historical change of norms is a natural and objective phenomenon arising from the nature of language itself as a social phenomenon located in

constant development together with its creator and native speaker - society. It follows that:

The change in norms does not depend on the will and desire of individual language speakers;

Rules defining the exemplary use of linguistic means

are derived from language practice and develop over the long history of the language. V. G. Belinsky said this perfectly: “Create

language is impossible, because it is created by the people: philologists only discover it

laws are brought into the system, and writers only create on it, in accordance with

these laws” (Vinogradov V.V. Essays on the history of the Russian literary language of the 17th – 19th centuries, - M., p. 175);

The norm cannot be canceled or introduced administratively. Her

can only be observed and recorded;

The development of society, changes in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, the improvement of relations between people, the functioning of literature and art lead to the renewal of norms.

The universality of norms is determined by the fact that:

Literary and linguistic norms are enshrined in dictionaries, reference books

and educational literature;

They are mandatory for radio and television, mass media, and entertainment enterprises;

Norms are the subject and purpose of school teaching of Russian

language, as well as teaching linguistic disciplines in universities.

The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: colloquial speech, local dialects, vernacular, jargon and borrowing from

other languages. As a result of the influence of these factors, we can observe, for example, that what was the norm in the last century or 15

20 years ago, today has become a deviation.

In the textbook by L. A. Vvedenskaya “Russian language and culture of speech” there is

such an example taken from the Literary Gazette: “... in an article about the correctness of speech the following case was described. The lecturer rose to the podium and began

say this: “Some people spit on the norms of literary speech. We, they say,

everything is allowed Oh, we as families say so, they will bury us that way. I shuddered when I heard this, but did not speak out against it...” First, the audience

was perplexed, then a murmur of indignation was heard and finally

laughter. The lecturer waited until the audience calmed down and said: “You’re in vain.”

laugh. I speak in the best literary language. In the language of the classics." And he began to give quotes that contained “wrong” ones.

words from his lecture, comparing them with the readings of dictionaries of that time. With this example, the speaker demonstrated how, in more than 100 years,

The norm of the language has changed” (Vvedenskaya, p. 73). Not only phonetic norms are changing, but also all the others

(lexical, spelling, grammatical, etc.). Let's take for example the plural ending of masculine nouns

vegetable garden - vegetable gardens, garden - gardens, table- tables, fence - fences; but there is also

horn - horns, shore - shore, eye - eyes.

As you can see, in the nominative plural case, nouns have the ending not only -ы but also -а. Having two endings

associated with the history of declension. In the Old Russian language, in addition to the singular and plural, there was also a dual number, which

used when talking about two, three or four

objects (cf.: table, tables, but two tables). Since the 13th century, this form begins to collapse and is gradually eliminated. However, traces of it are found, firstly, in the ending of the nominative plural case

number of nouns denoting paired objects, such as: horns, eyes, sleeves, banks, sides; secondly, the singular genitive form of nouns with the numerals two, three, four

(two tables, three houses, four knives) historically goes back to the nominative case form of the dual number. This is confirmed by the difference in

stress: “in two rows” and “came out of the row.”

After the disappearance of the dual number, along with the old ending –ы, a new ending –а appeared in masculine nouns in the nominative plural, which, as a younger ending, began to spread and displace the ending –ы.

Thus, in modern Russian the noun “train” has

ending -a (train). While in the 19th century -s were the norm. (“Railway trains stop due to heavy rainfall

snow for four days,” wrote N.G. Chernyshevsky in a letter to his father dated 8

February 1855.) But the ending –а does not always win over the old ending –ы: in the words “driver”, “engineer”, etc. the ending –а in the plural

to a certain extent it remains outside the literary norm (it is considered

variant with the mark either “colloquial” - engineer, or “jargon-

noe" - the driver).

Variability is determined by the fact that the presence of a norm does not exclude

the possibility of parallel existence of language variants.

Variants of a linguistic sign are its varieties or modifications, for example: chauffeurs and chauffeurs, no and no, wholesale and Wholesale, etc.

The presence of variants of a linguistic sign that actually coexist

at a certain stage of language development and are actively used by its speakers, may be due to various reasons.

First of all, the presence of variants is due to the appearance in the language

something new that changes the old norm. The existence of such variants is believed to indicate an impending historical change in the norm.

For example, in the “Dictionary of Modern Russian Literary Language”

(1950-1963) accent variants of such

words, how to normalize and normalize, label and label,

thinking and thinking. If you turn to the “Dictionary of Difficulties...”

(Gorbachevich K.S. Dictionary of difficulties of pronunciation and stress in the modern Russian language. - St. Petersburg: “Norint”, 2000. – 304 p.), then you can pro-

monitor the fate of these options. So, words normalize and thinking

become preferred, and normalization and thinking are labeled “extra.” (acceptable). Of the options to label and label, labeling becomes the only correct one.

It should be noted that the degree of historical mobility of norms

we are not the same at different linguistic levels. For example, spelling

norms (literary pronunciation and stress) have undergone significant

changes throughout the 20th century, and grammatical norms (rules

formations of words, phrases and sentences) are more stable.

The existence of options may not be due to the appearance

new, but for completely different reasons, in particular stylistic.

Thus, variants appear in the language, one of which is

general literary, and the other stylistically limited or beyond the literary norm, for example: cuff (general literary form), and cuff (stylistically limited form, because it is used

usually used in technical literature) or splash, splash (about-

literary form) - splashes (colloquial).

Along with the stylistic one, there can also be a semantic difference

between options, for example: open (disconnect) - open

(scatter, lose) or leave the house (from any house) - leave

home (from your home).

Speaking about the modern norm, some researchers suggest

talk about three degrees of normativity:

Standard 1st degree – strict, or rigid (not allowing options),

for example: faith in friendship (in what? -v + V.p.), but confidence in friendship (in

what? - in + P.p.) – the words “faith, confidence” control only those indicated

cases;

Level 2 norm – neutral (allows equivalent options),

for example, symmetry and symmetry (double stress in this word is considered normative);

Standard 3rd degree – flexible (allows the use of book,

colloquial, as well as obsolete forms), for example: spring and spring

(the second version of the ending of the Tv. p. is considered bookish).

The indicated degrees are nothing more than language variants (the exception is the norm of 1st degree).

Language variants, or variants of norms, are reflected in dictionaries or

reference books of modern literary language, are described in textbooks.

The literary norm is of utmost importance for the language:

It protects the national language from introducing into it everything random and private;

It protects the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, vernacular, and the dominance of foreign

words, etc., which allows the literary language to fulfill its main

function – cultural;

It helps the literary language maintain its integrity and

general intelligibility, because without firmly established language norms people would poorly understand each other;

It does not depend on the conditions in which speech occurs: it does not

divides language means into good and bad, and indicates their communicative expediency. This means that linguistic means appropriate in one

situation (for example, everyday communication) may turn out to be absurd in

another (for example, official business communication).

The sources of selection of norms are the speech of educated people (scientists, writers, statesmen), the language of newspapers and magazines, radio

and television, as well as a live survey of native speakers.

The first part of the names of linguistic dictionaries ortho- (ortho-) means “correct”. Orthological dictionaries are special normative dictionaries. They describe difficult cases of the Russian language, which is why they are called dictionaries of difficulties of the Russian language, dictionaries of the correctness of Russian speech.
There are four types of orthological dictionaries.

1. Orthographic (norms for spelling words).
2. Orthoepic (norms for pronunciation and stress of words).
3. Grammatical (norms of inflection, word formation, construction of phrases and sentences).
4. Dictionaries of lexical difficulties (correct use of paronyms, synonyms, antonyms, etc.).

The spelling dictionary explains the spelling of a word that corresponds to the rules of spelling (for example: pamphlet, station, red tape, guitar, mosquito, communist, daffodil, excursion, kilogram, pan, engineer, luggage, newspaper, alphabet). It is of particular importance for teaching spelling.
The spelling dictionary explains the pronunciation of words (for example: Sh[o]pen or Sh[a]pen, op[e]ka or op[o]ka, by[e] or by[o], s[o]kla or sv[ e]kla, skuk[shn]o or skuk[chn]o), uniform stress placement in words (for example: quart A l, blinds And, ringing And t, t O mouths, And rice or ir And c) in accordance with the pronunciation norms of the national language.
An explanatory dictionary explains the meanings of words in the language, contains their grammatical and stylistic characteristics, examples of use in speech and other information (for example: feed, -ormlyu, -ormish; -ormlenny; sov., whom (that). To feed excessively or cause harm to unnecessary feeding).
The dictionary of foreign words includes the most common foreign words in modern oral and written speech (for example: apocrypha, fiction, benefit, genesis, designer, madrigal, stagecoach, jacket, platform, problem, prism, racket, backpack, highway, epigraph, exclusive), contains information about the meaning of these words, their origin, grammatical and accentological characteristics, and sometimes provides cultural and historical commentary.
The dictionary of synonyms contains information about words that are different in spelling, but the same or similar in lexical meaning (for example: evolution - development; identical - similar, similar; indifferent - indifferent; analysis - analysis, division; verdict - decision, decree; punctual - accurate , timely; export - export).
The dictionary of homonyms contains information about words that are the same or very similar in sound and spelling, but completely different in meaning (for example: castle and castle, burn hand and burn hand, advertising campaign and promotions rose.
The dictionary of paronyms contains information about words that are similar in sound and spelling, but different in lexical meaning (for example: spiritual - spiritual, spiritual - stuffy, educational - educational, romantic - romantic, color - color, diplomatic - diplomatic).
The phraseological dictionary contains phraseological units, stable combinations of words (for example: shout at the top of Ivanovskaya, be between Scylla and Charybdis, Adam's apple, white bone, Achilles' heel, be on a horse, live with your mind). He explains the meaning and stylistic features of these linguistic units.
The etymological dictionary explains the origin of a word (for example: alphabet, chisel, zlindni, karbolka, caravan, tow, nasushchiy, earphone, insult, hosanna, whisperer, shelom, yakhont) or morpheme, contains information about the original word-formation structure of the word and identifies elements of its ancient meaning .

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

BASHKIR STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Abstract on the topic:

"Types of linguistic dictionaries"

Completed by: 1st year student

FIA group 104 LMK

Rakhmatullina Albina

Checked by: Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor.

Kurbangaleeva G.M.

1. Introduction............................................... ........................................................ .............3

2. Main part................................................... ........................................................ ...6

2.1. Explanatory dictionaries................................................... ...............................................6

2.2 System dictionaries.................................................... ........................................17

2.3.Dictionaries of foreign words.................................................... ...............................26

2.4. Translation dictionaries................................................... ......................................thirty

2.5.Electronic dictionaries.................................................... ........................................33

3. Conclusion........................................................ ........................................................ .......35

4. List of used literature................................................... ...................36

1. Introduction.

The role of dictionaries in the modern world is great. The dictionary form of presenting material (convenient for quickly obtaining the necessary information) is becoming more and more popular in our dynamic, information-rich age. Many publications, previously not associated with dictionaries, are being “accepted”, becoming “dictionary-like”, and supplemented with lexicographic components. Voltaire noted this trend back in the 18th century: “The number of facts and writings is growing so quickly that in the near future everything will have to be reduced to extracts and dictionaries.” French lexicographer Alan Ray called modern civilization a civilization of dictionaries. Today, the role of dictionaries in the spiritual life of society and in understanding the cultural heritage of the people is increasingly realized. As noted by Kozyrev V.A. and Chernyak V.D., “the alarming decline in the general level of speech culture makes us especially acutely aware of the role of the dictionary as the most important and irreplaceable tool that develops the skills of a conscious attitude towards one’s speech.”

There are two main types of dictionaries based on their content: encyclopedic and linguistic. The object of description in an encyclopedic dictionary and encyclopedia is various objects, phenomena and concepts; the object of description in a linguistic dictionary is a unit of language, most often a word. The purpose of a description in a linguistic dictionary is to provide information not about the denoted object itself, but about

linguistic unit (about its meaning, compatibility, etc.), the character

The information provided by the dictionary varies depending on the type of linguistic dictionary.

Most people have to deal with only a few “classical” types of dictionaries: explanatory ones, which one turns to when wanting to find out the meaning of some (usually incomprehensible) word; bilingual; spelling and spelling, in which they inquire about how

correctly write or pronounce this or that word; and, perhaps,

etymological. In reality, the variety of types of dictionaries is much greater. Almost all of them are presented in the Russian lexicographical tradition and are accessible to the Russian reader.

The primary function of a dictionary is to describe the meanings of words, and the dictionary descriptions, or interpretations, should be clear and understandable, as far as possible without using words that are less common and less understandable than the word being interpreted. Usually the more common meanings are interpreted first, followed by the rarer ones. Because the exact meaning of a word often depends on context, more detailed dictionaries provide examples of how words are used in different contexts.

In addition to interpretations and examples of use, dictionaries include a rich store of linguistic information. They are a common source of knowledge about the correct spelling and pronunciation of words, listing preferred and alternative pronunciations and spellings in

in cases where more than one is allowed, as in the case of English. theater And

heat"theater", catalog And catalog"catalogue" or in Russian. galoshes And Galosh. Dictionaries may also provide grammatical information, the etymology of words (their origins and historical development), derived forms (for example, plural forms in English) where they are unusual or difficult to form, synonyms and antonyms. Larger dictionaries include technical terms, place names, foreign words, and biographical entries. More often, however, these types of information are distributed among different types of more specific dictionaries.

Since the fast pace of modern life corresponds to constant changes in language, dictionaries must be updated in accordance with the requirements of the time. New words should be included in frequently republished dictionaries in the order in which they are added. Equally important are completeness and thoroughness. The most comprehensive are complete (as opposed to abbreviated) dictionaries, defined in the English lexicographical tradition as unabridged. For the English language, for example, such dictionaries contain more than 400 thousand words.

The criteria for choosing a dictionary depend on the age of the user and the situations in which he intends to work with the dictionary. For example, the complex structure of dictionaries for adults can frustrate and scare away younger students, and therefore for elementary and high school are compiled

special dictionaries.

Main part.

2.1. Explanatory dictionaries .

EDITIONS OF V. I. DAL’S “EXPLANATORY DICTIONARY OF THE LIVING GREAT RUSSIAN LANGUAGE”

Many dictionaries have been created in the world, surprising with their volume and richness of content. But perhaps the most outstanding of them is “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language - Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl. The importance of the dictionary for Russian culture and education is especially great. Dalev's dictionary is a fascinating read about the Russian language, its life and history. Having opened the page of any volume, you are immersed in truly folk speech, figurative, clear, simple.

Dahl began collecting words for his dictionary when he was still eighteen years old and worked on it until last days life.

The first edition of V. I. Dahl’s “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” was published in 1863-1866. This was the result of almost half a century of work, as a result of which the scientist collected, studied and systematized a huge stock of words and phraseological expressions of the Russian language. In terms of the wealth of lexical and phraseological material, Dalev's dictionary surpasses all dictionaries published in Russia before and after him.

V.I. Dal sought to include all vocabulary in his dictionary, including words taken both from written monuments and from oral folk speech. He based the dictionary on the living Great Russian language - a folk language with all regional dialects and dialects. V. I. Dal collected these lexical materials on his own during trips around the country for 40 years. In addition, the name of V. I. Dal as a scientist and collector of living Russian speech was widely known among the Russian intelligentsia, and therefore, starting from 1840, he systematically received records of folk words and phraseological units, either from numerous correspondents, or through the editors of periodicals , who published dialectological articles or received recordings of folk words from collectors.

In his work on the dictionary, V. I. Dal could not help but use the rich previous lexicographical tradition. He wrote about this in his “Parting Words” for the dictionary. First of all, V.I. Dal was guided by the most complete of the dictionaries of the Russian language - “Dictionary of the Church Slavonic and Russian Language”, compiled by the Second Branch of the Imperial Academy of Sciences (St. Petersburg, vols. 1-4, 1847). This choice is due to the fact that this dictionary was a major phenomenon in the history of Russian lexicography. The academic dictionary enjoyed well-deserved authority in advanced Russian society at the end of the 1st half of the 19th century.

Simultaneously with this explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, V. I. Dal widely used dialect dictionaries of folk dialects and dictionaries of trades and crafts: “The experience of the regional Great Russian dictionary”, compiled by the Second Department of the Imperial Academy of Sciences (St. Petersburg, 1852), “Addition to the experience of the regional Great Russian Dictionary" (St. Petersburg, 1858), "Experience of a terminological dictionary of agriculture, manufacturing, crafts and folk life" Vl. Burnashev (St. Petersburg, vols. 1-2, 1843-1844).

In total, according to V. I. Dahl’s calculations, the first edition of the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” contained about 200,000 words. Of these, he collected 80,000 words on his own. He extracted approximately 120,000 words and expressions from previous dictionaries. But V. I. Dal transferred all this lexical material into his dictionary not mechanically: he reworked it and supplemented it with new data. V. I. Dal arranged words into nests, removed stylistic marks, excluded “completely outdated words” from the scope of his work, clarified the semantic characteristics of words and phraseological units, revised the system of local dialect marks, introduced marks for words of foreign origin, indicating the nearest sources borrowing. Having introduced into his work the vocabulary of the literary and book language and partly the verbal fund of monuments of old literature and thereby proving the need to bring the literary language closer to living folk speech, V. I. Dal created a dictionary that has become the most authoritative historical and lexicological reference book for the study of the Russian language XIX century and subsequent time.

After the release of the first edition of the Explanatory Dictionary, reviews and reviews of scientists, writers, and public figures appeared. The dictionary becomes the center around which various lexicographic works are carried out, directly or indirectly outlined by V. I. Dahl. Additions and notes to the dictionary appear indicating words that exist in the Russian language, but were not taken into account by V. I. Dahl for some reason. V.I. Dal collects these materials for further replenishment and correction of the dictionary, thereby preparing a stock of words and phraseological expressions for the second edition.

The second edition of the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” was published in 1880-1882 after the death of V. I. Dahl. True, he managed to make major changes, additions and amendments to the new edition, although this work was finally carried out by the editors of the bookseller-publisher M. O. Wolf, who acquired the right to publish the dictionary from the heirs of V. I. Dal, and by the scientific editor (it is assumed that that it was Professor P.N. Polevoy).

When preparing the second edition, V.I. Dal did not set himself the task of revising the principles of constructing the dictionary. As before, he retained the root-word (cluster) method of grouping words, in which groups of words, raised to a common root, are combined into nests, and the original word or the root itself is placed at the head of the nest, as was done in the “Dictionary of the Russian Academy” (St. Petersburg ., 1789-1794). The main work for the second edition of the dictionary was carried out in the following directions: the lexical and phraseological material was supplemented and expanded (over 1,500 new words, about 300 proverbs and sayings were introduced into the dictionary), and the semantic characteristics of a number of words were clarified. In addition, Dahl eliminated a number of dubious words, rearranged several header and intra-nest words and corrected some incorrectly constructed nest articles, clarified the etymology and spelling of words and phraseological units.

Of the numerous critical analyzes of the dictionary published during V. I. Dahl’s lifetime, the additions and amendments of J. K. Grot and L. I. Shrenk deserve to be noted. After the death of V. I. Dahl, additions and notes to the dictionary of I. F. Naumov and P. V. Shein, which were of fundamental scientific importance, were published, which were taken into account by the editors of the second edition. From critical analyzes of the dictionary and additions to it, V. I. Dal, as well as the editors, introduced over 550 new words and expressions into the second edition of the dictionary.

The third edition of the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” was published in 1903 - 1909. Before embarking on a new edition of the dictionary, the publishing house “M. O. Wolff Partnership” turns to many outstanding experts on the Russian language - academicians, professors, writers, including A. A. Shakhmatov, A. I. Sobolevsky, A. N. Pypin, E. F. Budde, S. K. Bulich, A. F. Koni, D. L. Mordovtsev, S. A. Vengerov - with a request to express their opinion whether the new edition of the dictionary should be completely revised in accordance with the comments critics and reviewers, or keep it in its original form, only correcting obvious errors and adding new materials.

the editor of the third edition introduced new words and expressions into the text of the dictionary, which for various reasons were absent in the first two editions. First of all, this includes words from the notes of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay himself, which he kept during his professorship at Kazan University (1875-1883). Basically, these are dialect records of words and expressions with the names of those provinces in which I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay visited. The following examples can serve as examples of such records: cackle Vyat. “to cry out in a rough voice, to shout loudly”; woboloko zap. "cloud", etc.

In 1935, the State Publishing House “Khudozhestvennaya Literatura” published the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language”, produced by phototype, with an introductory article written by A. M. Sukhotin. This facsimile edition reproduces the text of the second edition of 1880-1882. In 1955 (with a repetition in 1956), the State Publishing House of Foreign and National Dictionaries launched a new edition of V. I. Dahl’s dictionary with an introductory article by A. M. Babkin (it was also typed and printed from the second edition of 1880-1882). This edition of the dictionary eliminated spelling errors and typos of the second edition. The publishing house "Russian Language" in 1978-1980 (with a repetition in 1981-1982) published another edition of the dictionary. It reproduces in a reduced format by photomechanical means the 1955 edition, which in turn was typeset and printed from the second edition. This edition also reproduces the 1955 edition. Thus, V.I. Dahl’s “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” is published in its eighth (and, taking into account repetitions in 1956 and 1981-1982, tenth) edition.

One-volume dictionary of the Russian language .

INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR USERS OF THE DICTIONARY

COMPOSITION OF THE DICTIONARY.

§ I. The one-volume dictionary of the Russian language is a guide to the correct use of words, to the correct formation of their forms, to the correct pronunciation, as well as to the correct spelling of words in the modern Russian literary language.

The modern Russian literary language is the national Russian language in its literary form, serving as a means of communication and exchange of thoughts in all areas of life and activity, an instrument of cultural development of the people. The vocabulary of the Russian literary language of our era is rich and complex: it is the product of the entire centuries-old development of the Russian language up to ours, Soviet era, reflecting, therefore, the changes that occurred in it in connection with the development of Soviet society, its culture, science and technology. But a one-volume dictionary cannot set itself the task of reflecting the entire diversity of the vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language.

§ 2. In accordance with the objectives of the dictionary, as a rule, it does not contain:

1) special words that are narrowly professional, private terms of a particular branch of science and technology and which are necessary only for a relatively limited circle of workers in that field or other specialty;

2) local, dialect words, if they are not used widely enough as part of the literary language as a means of expression;

3) words with a clearly expressed rude connotation;

4) ancient or outdated words that have fallen out of the language, practically unnecessary from the point of view of modern linguistic communication, understanding of immediate historical reality or texts of classical literature;

5) compound and compound words, as well as letter abbreviations, if they do not have a new connotation in meaning compared to the meaning of the phrase from which they arose, or if they do not go beyond the limits of relatively narrow, professional use;

6) proper names of various types - personal, geographical, names of institutions, etc.

Dictionary of the Russian language.

In 4 volumes / USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Russian. language; Ed. A. P. Evgenieva. – 2nd ed., rev. and additional – M.: Russian language, 1981–1984.

How to use a dictionary

Composition of the Dictionary

The dictionary contains commonly used vocabulary and phraseology of the modern Russian literary language. The material basis for the Dictionary was the card index of the Dictionary Sector of the Russian Language Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences, containing selections from works of fiction from Pushkin to the present day, as well as from works of journalistic and scientific literature in its classical examples of the 19th-20th centuries.

In accordance with the objectives of the Dictionary, it does not include:

a) regional words, with the exception of those that are widely represented in works of art by various authors or denote objects, phenomena, concepts that are especially important and characteristic of the life, everyday life, etc. of the population of a particular region and are widely known outside its borders (baz, beetle, talk etc.);

b) many words of rough vernacular;

c) obsolete words that have fallen out of use, with the exception of those that were widespread in the literature of the 19th century;

d) the Dictionary also does not include highly specialized terms in certain fields of science, technology, and the arts, which are necessary only for specialists.

Due to the limited space of the Dictionary, the following categories of words are also not given.

a) proper names (personal, geographical, names of institutions, etc.), as well as common nouns, which are the names of residents of cities and localities ( Leningrader, Muscovite, Volgar and so on.);

b) those groups of derived words that are easily formed and easily understood: 1) derived nouns, if they have no meanings other than those introduced by suffixes: nouns with suffixes of emotional evaluation (diminutive, endearing, derogatory, dismissive, augmentative); Many of the names of the characters are masculine and feminine, derived from verbs and adjectives, for example: questioner, questioner, whitener, whitener; little-used nouns with an abstract meaning of property, quality and state with the suffixes -ost, -is, derived from adjectives and participles, for example: inclusion, indifference, multi-colored, striped; 2) adjectives with the suffixes -ovat-, -evat-, expressing incompleteness or weakening of quality, for example: whitish, bluish, adjectives with suffixes of emotional evaluation (diminutive, endearing, intensifying); many possessive adjectives with the suffixes -ov, -ev and -in, for example: residents, girls; compound adjectives denoting shades of colors, e.g. crimson red; 3) adverbs in -ski, -ь and with the prefix po-, for example: humanly, bearishly; adverbs formed from the dative case singular. including an adjective with the prefix po-, for example: home-style;

c) abbreviations (which are letter abbreviations) are not given in the Dictionary, with the exception of those that have entered the language as words that have gender and change by case.

Note. A list of commonly used abbreviations in the modern Russian language is given in the appendix to the fourth volume.

Russian semantic dictionary.

Explanatory dictionary, systematized by classes of words and meanings / Russian Academy of Sciences. Institute rus. language them. V. V. Vinogradova; Under the general editorship. N. Yu. Shvedova. – M.: "Azbukovnik", 1998.

Theoretical foundations of the dictionary

The theoretical basis of the dictionary is the position according to which the verbal composition of the modern Russian literary language represents a historically established natural system with all the characteristics belonging to such a system: it is a fairly clearly defined integrity, consisting of a number of sections, each having its own organization, varying degrees of openness to additions, according to certain laws, interacting with each other and at the same time obeying the system as a whole. The lexical system lives according to laws common to any living natural system: it actively functions and at the same time is in constant development, ultimately determined by the life of its subsystems and their interaction; changes occurring in a particular area, its losses and additions, directly or indirectly, necessarily affect the entire organization and stimulate the processes occurring in it. The lexical system, like any historically formed natural integrity, has a high degree of stability: those of its main classes that are distinguished for the modern state of the language have existed for a long time; over the course of centuries and decades, it is not the system itself that changes, but certain areas within it and the relationships between these areas; This is precisely the nature of additions and losses, trends in the development of vocabulary, noted for certain periods in the life of the language. Naturally, taking place in the bosom of the system, such processes do not leave it indifferent: they ensure its existence as a living and developing organism. The concept of the "Russian Semantic Dictionary" is based on the thesis according to which the division of the entire verbal composition into parts of speech given by the language itself is the initial division of vocabulary: the abstract meaning of a part of speech, expressed in grammatical categories and forms, represents the highest level of abstraction from the lexical meanings of all those words that are included in this part of speech and form it. All parts of speech of the Russian language (words and non-integrally formed units equal to them) exist in the system: 1) indicating words (pronouns), 2) naming words, 3) actual connecting words - conjunctions, prepositions, connectives and their analogues, 4) actual qualifying words - modal words and combinations, particles and their analogues, interjections. Naming words, i.e. those whose lexical meanings are based on concepts about an object, attribute, state or process, include nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs and predicates, as well as counting words. Denoting words are grammatically distributed into classes of names and adverbs. See diagram No. 1, page VIII. All together, the words of the named classes are united by a common feature: each of the units included in any of these classes is a word, that is, a material linguistic sign that serves to designate the realities of the physical and mental world ( abstract representations of objects, features, processes), relations between such realities, as well as to name such realities themselves or to indicate them. Each part of speech is formed by words grouped into lexical classes proper, appearing in the form of a branched tree with branches diverging from the top to the base.

The unit that exists in the tree as its smallest particle is the meaning of the word (word meaning): for an unambiguous word this is its actual meaning, for a polysemantic word - one of its meanings, each meaning separately. The lexical tree in relation to each part of speech is built on the basis of a study of the entire array of words that is presented in a modern middle-type explanatory dictionary with significant additions from other explanatory dictionaries and from a variety of modern texts; the total number of such units in our dictionary is about 300,000 (three hundred thousand).

2.2. System dictionaries.

Dictionary of Russian morphemes

Kuznetsova A.I., Efremova T.F.

The dictionary consists of the Root, Prefix and Suffix parts, as well as the Index and Applications.

The structure of the Root, Prefix and Suffix parts of the dictionary is described in detail in the introductory article “Principles of morphemic analysis and construction of a dictionary of morphemes”.

The dictionary index is an alphabetical list of all words included in the dictionary. To the right of the word after the dash sign is its root. Homonymous roots are indicated, as in the dictionary corpus, with Arabic numerals. For example:

turn back - 1 gate gate - 2 gates

For homonymous words, a brief semantically distinctive indication of one nature or another is given in brackets (interpretation through a synonym, through a phrase), an indication of the part of speech, etc. For example:

to memorize (about notches) - tooth

memorize (about memorization) - bison

whole (noun) - 3 weight

whole (local) - 4 weight

The dictionary contains about 52,000 words, made up of approximately 5,000 morphemes (morphemes are given in their written form).

HOW TO FIND THE RIGHT WORD IN THE DICTIONARY.

1. If the reader wants to find a word in the dictionary and determine its morphemic composition, he must first refer to the Dictionary Index. Having determined from it the root of the word he is interested in, he can then find this root in the Root part of the dictionary.

The root part is a dictionary of roots, arranged in alphabetical order. The dictionary entry is headed by a root (a number of allomorphs are given in parentheses, if any), after which the words are given With possessing this root. The capital root is replaced in the article by a radical sign (V). Significant parts of words (morphemes) are separated from each other by a hyphen

Substituting the capital root in place of the radical sign, we get the words: babble, babble. babble.

In the dictionary entry the material is arranged as follows.

First come affix-free words with a zero or materially expressed ending (the zero ending is indicated by the sign V); If there are several endings with the same stem, they are listed under numbers in alphabetical order. After words with a zero or materially expressed ending, represented by variable parts of speech, unchangeable parts of speech are given - adverbs, interjections, etc. (the absence of endings in them is indicated by the sign ^).

Then the remaining prefix-free words are given, taking into account the alphabet of suffixes.

To find out, for example, the morphemic structure of words color, flowers, colorful And fade, it is necessary, as mentioned above, to determine the root of these words by finding them alphabetically in the Index. After this it will become clear that they are all in the dictionary in the article headed by the root COLOR. Turning to this article, we find in the part where prefix-free words with a zero or materially expressed ending are given, the words color, flowers and recognize their morphemic structure: tsvet-o, tsvet-s.

Word colorful We find it in the article among the suffix words and in the same way we recognize its morphemic division: color-ast-y.

Word fade located in the article under consideration in a series of prefix words. Its morphemic structure is as follows: you-color-a-th.

2. If the reader is interested in the question of in which words any specific prefixal morpheme occurs and with what other morphemes it is combined in the word, he will find it according to the general alphabet of capital units in the Prefix part of the dictionary. After the capital prefix, models of all words in which this prefix occurs are given in alphabetical order of affixes. By model we mean the affixal surroundings of the root that act as a model in the language. If there are several endings in a model, they are given in alphabetical order under numbers.

To the right of the model, after the dash sign, the roots themselves are given with numbers (if there are several endings in the model) , corresponding to the ending numbers in the model. Mentally substituting into the model, in place of the radical sign, a root with the same number as the inflection in the model, we restore the words formed according to the model with this prefix.

3. In order to find out in which words any particular suffixal morpheme occurs and with what other morphemes it is combined, you need to find it according to the alphabet of capital suffixes in the Suffixal part of the dictionary.

C Dictionary of Russian synonyms and similar meanings

expressions. Abramov N.
Dictionary of Russian synonyms and similar expressions: About 5,000 synonymous rows. More than 20,000 synonyms - 7th ed., stereotype. - M.: Russian dictionaries, 1999.

The purpose of this book is to provide a more or less complete selection of Russian synonyms, i.e. words similar in overall value, but different in shades. The book should serve as a guide for finding forgotten expressions.

To find the concept you are looking for, you must remember some word that is somewhat, even if not very close, suitable to it, and look it up in the dictionary. It is possible that just for this word there will not be a list of corresponding synonyms, but there will be a link to another word to which the sought-after concept is associated in the dictionary. If none of the words included in the specified nest of synonyms expresses the desired concept, this means that a word has been taken that is too far from the searched one, and the search must continue, guided by the links available for the found word.

We tried to match the nests to the most general or most common of the synonyms. Very often, a word with the opposite meaning (“prot.”) is also indicated in a synonymous nest; this gives a new synonym, since all that remains is to add negative particles, such as “not”, “without”, “not very”, etc., to get a suitable word with a new connotation. But this is not enough: it is worth finding all the synonyms of the opposite word and adding the indicated negative particles to each of them to get a new series of synonyms. In addition, it gives you the opportunity to search for words by their opposites. You forgot, for example, the word “non-detailed”, “brief”; all you have to do is look up the word “detailed,” and you will have a clue to finding all the expressions that are the opposite of “detailed.” In many cases, to save space, we left it to the reader to form synonyms for an adverb using synonyms for the corresponding adjective, or synonyms for an adjective using synonyms for a noun (by replacing the ending). For example, the indication “see In detail" means: forming adverbs from all adjectives does not mean: see nest "In detail" (there is no such nest), but nests "Detailed". For many words, their epithets are given. They are appropriate as a help to someone looking for a forgotten definition of a given word (such, for example, are epithets for the words: eyes, rain, duty, proof, etc.); in addition, their existence in the dictionary of synonyms is justified by the following consideration: epithets give shades of words; together with the defined word, they form, as it were, a new synonym, and many epithets have become so closely fused with the defined word that in speech they are inseparable. Often the scope of a word is evident from the epithets with which it is used.

Verbal forms constitute one of the most serious difficulties in the dictionary of Russian synonyms. There are verbs whose perfect form belongs to one nest, and their imperfect form to another. In these cases, we placed the corresponding species under each nest. If both species belong to the same nest of synonyms, in order to save space, we usually left only one species, imperfect.

The examples given in our dictionary are intended to show how certain expressions included in the synonyms are used. This is done especially when a given synonym is used in only one sentence. None of the examples were made up out of our heads. All of them are taken either from classical Russian writers (in this case, if they are taken in full sentences, it is indicated from which one), or from the Academic Dictionary (where examples, as is known, are compiled by recognized experts in the Russian language) or from Dahl’s “Explanatory Dictionary”. Not wanting to needlessly expand the volume of the book, we were forced to limit ourselves to the most necessary examples. The same circumstance explains the extensive content of some synonymous nests and the relatively large number of references to other nests: if we repeated its synonyms for each word, the size of the book would increase by 4-5 times, which would have an extremely unfavorable effect on its accessibility.

We have introduced brackets for the same purpose. In brackets are words without which the speech makes sense. For example: “in fact” represents, in essence, two sentences: “in fact” and “in fact”. The parentheses in the example have a slightly different meaning: “I threw it out of my head.” Expanding this bracket, we get two sentences: “I threw it out of my head” and “I threw it out of my head.” However, in cases where the use of parentheses could give rise to misunderstandings, we left the expressions unabridged.

In conclusion, we consider it necessary to give two pieces of advice to those using this dictionary. First of all, first of all, read or at least leaf through it in order to become familiar with its content and arrangement of words; and secondly, mark on your copy of the dictionary, under the appropriate headings, all new words and expressions encountered, written or spoken, that have the right to exist in the language. The “dictionary of synonyms” can never be complete, since language lives and constantly changes for various reasons. Let everyone, in the sphere of his vocabulary of words, achieve the greatest completeness of the dictionary of synonyms.

Russian spelling dictionary.

about 160,000 words / Russian Academy of Sciences. Institute rus. language them. V. V. Vinogradova: Editorial Board: V. V. Lopatin (chief editor), B. Z. Bukchina, N. A. Eskova, etc. - Moscow: "Azbukovnik", 1999.

VOLUME OF THE DICTIONARY AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DICTIONARY.

The new "Russian Spelling Dictionary", being a normative reference book for a wide range of users, reflects the vocabulary of the Russian literary language of the mid-90s of the 20th century. Along with active, commonly used vocabulary, the dictionary includes colloquial, dialect (regional), slang, obsolete words, historicisms - to the extent that these categories of words are reflected in fiction, in newspaper, journalistic and colloquial speech. Special terminology of various fields of scientific knowledge and practical activity occupies a significant place in the dictionary.

The dictionary was prepared in the sector of spelling and spelling of the Institute of Russian Language. V. V. Vinogradov RAS. E. V. Beshenkova, S. N. Borunova, L. P. Kalakutskaya, N. V. Mamina, I. V. Nechaeva took part in the work on the dictionary at different stages.

The dictionary gives the correct spellings of words and their forms, as well as some types of verbal compounds, one way or another correlating with the words. Such compounds include, for example, separately and hyphenated combinations of words that are similar in structure and meaning to words written together ( bread and salt ,launch vehicle ,read-re-read ,vital), prepositional-case combinations similar to adverbs ( basically ,retail ,on the run ,out of habit), compound names in which one word (or more) is written with a capital letter ( The State Duma ,Black Sea).

Compared to the "Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language", published in 1956 - 1998. (editions 1 - 33), the vocabulary of this dictionary has been significantly expanded (from 100 to 160 thousand units). Particular attention is paid to the vocabulary of those conceptual areas that have been updated in recent years: first of all, to church and religious vocabulary, terminology of the market, business, banking, programming, computer technology, etc. The range of common noun vocabulary has been replenished with a variety of new words and expressions characteristic of for modern newspaper, journalistic, colloquial speech and vernacular. The representation of derived words has been significantly increased. The range of separately written (non-word) units included in the dictionary has been expanded, and, first of all, the functional equivalents of a word.

The fundamental difference between the new dictionary and the “Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language” is the inclusion of words written with a capital letter (the authors of the previous dictionary did not aim to reflect such spellings).

The following categories of words written with capital letters and their combinations are presented as independent vocabulary units in the “Russian Spelling Dictionary”:

1) proper names (personal, literary, mythological, geographical), also used in the common sense, for example: Hamlet ,Gargantua ,Plyushkin ,Mitrofanushka ,Munchausen ,Apollo ,Nemesis ,Cassandra ,Themis ,Rothschild ,Juvenal ,Mecca ,Vendée ,Hiroshima ,Chernobyl ,Cheryomushki ;

2) names of sacred concepts of religion, for example: Lord ,Mother of God ,Bible ,Gospel ,Koran ,Holy Bible ,Christmas ,Candlemas ,Exaltation ,God the Father ,Holy Sacrament ,Mother of God ,Resurrection of Christ ,Holy Sepulcher ;

3) names of historical eras, for example: Reformation ,Risorgimento ,Quattrocento ,Proto-Renaissance ;

4) geographical and other names formed according to word-formation models of common nouns, for example: Moscow region ,Volga region ,Transcaucasia ,Orenburg region ,Orlovshchina ,Vologda region ,Podkamennaya Tunguska ,Vodovzvodnaya Tower , (Andrey)First-Called , (Simeon)God-receiver ;

5) proper names (personal, mythological, geographical), appearing as part of stable combinations - such as, for example: Archimedes' law ,Boyle-Mariotte law ,binomial theorem ,Morse code ,Geiger counter ,Kalashnikov assault rifle ,lynching ,Hippocratic oath ,Botkin's disease ,two-faced Janus ,Thomas is unfaithful ;between Scylla and Charybdis ,cross the Rubicon ,sink into oblivion ;Where didn’t Makar drive his calves? ;Ivans ,not remembering kinship ;GMT ,Celsius ,on the Richter scale(the corresponding combinations can be found in the dictionary for words written in these combinations with a capital letter);

6) compound names (geographical, astronomical, names of historical persons, mythological and literary characters, historical eras and events, calendar periods and holidays, organizations and institutions, states and state associations), including common nouns (including words, used not in their own direct meaning), for example: Moscow River ,Mediterranean Sea ,Sergiev Posad ,Tsarskoe Selo ,Far East ,the great Wall of China ,Land of the Rising Sun ,The eternal City ,Golden Horde , Poklonnaya Gora ,Milky Way ,Peter the Great ,Ivan Tsarevich ,Dragon ,Middle Ages ,First World War ,St. Bartholomew's Night ,Battle of Kulikovo ,last supper ,Holy Week , Lent ,Elijah's day ,Trinity Day , New Year ,may Day ,Paris Commune ,United Nations , Russian Federation ,Commonwealth of Independent States , Federal Assembly ,The State Duma .

2.3.Dictionaries of foreign words.

New dictionary of foreign words

Zakharenko E. N., Komarova L. N., Nechaeva I. V.

25,000 words and phrases. – M.: “Azbukovnik”, 2003.

COMPOSITION OF THE DICTIONARY

"New Dictionary of Foreign Words" is intended for the widest range of readers, of different ages, education, with different interests and requests, who will find in it information about the meaning of the word, its origin (etymology), scope of use, spelling and stress.
In its structure and the information it contains, the Dictionary continues the tradition of dictionaries of foreign words that have developed in Russian lexicography. Being a dictionary of foreign words of the classical type, it reflects foreign language vocabulary in the Russian language systematically, in its entirety, including borrowings from past historical eras, new words that have appeared in the Russian language in recent decades, established terminology related to various fields of knowledge, non-terminological, everyday vocabulary.

The basis of the Dictionary is made up of commonly used vocabulary, widely used in various spheres of life (science and technology, politics, art, religion, sports, etc.), as well as words and expressions found in everyday life.
The Dictionary includes direct borrowings from various languages, including from the languages ​​of the peoples of the former USSR, internationalisms, as well as words formed in the Russian language from elements of Greek, Latin and other languages.

The following are given as separate vocabulary units in the Dictionary: words themselves, stable combinations of various types, first and second parts difficult words, some consoles.

When working on the “New Dictionary of Foreign Words”, explanatory and encyclopedic dictionaries recent years, special dictionaries in various fields of knowledge (especially in computer science, economics, art, cultural studies, religion, ecology, music, sports), as well as dictionaries of foreign words that have been published recently: traditional - "Modern Dictionary of Foreign Words", philological dictionaries of foreign words - “Explanatory Dictionary of Foreign Words” by L. P. Krysin, and dictionaries that record only foreign language neologisms, words that have recently appeared in the language, and are at different stages of mastering them in the Russian language. Words were selected and carefully examined that were not described in the lexicographic literature, but were often found in press materials, popular science and fiction, heard on radio and television.

The basis for developing the principles for selecting words, forming a dictionary, and constructing a dictionary entry was the time-tested and reader-recognized “Modern Dictionary of Foreign Words” (M., “Russian Language”, 1992).

The relevance of the "New Dictionary of Foreign Words" is due to the fact that it makes an attempt to reflect the linguistic situation in terms of the entry of borrowings into the Russian language at a given historical moment, at the turn of the 20th-21st centuries.

The Dictionary includes foreign (foreign) words that have long been included in the Russian language and constitute the base array in dictionaries of foreign words; they belong to the category of “old” words, known to the reader, that are no longer perceived as foreign. These are, for example, the names of old social institutions, the realities of old life, and individual names of clothing found in fiction.

The dictionary contains systematically presented terminology of various sciences, includes a large number of terms and terminological combinations; their interpretations reflect the current state of knowledge.

When working on the dictionary, special attention was paid to that part of the terminological vocabulary that previously remained outside the dictionaries due to its highly specialized nature, but has now become commonly used and widely used ( alloplant, default, immunodeficiency, implantology, installation, cloning, copyright, nuclear, passionary, performance, sequestration, suicide, testing, identikit, bypass surgery and etc.)

The Dictionary also includes individual thematic groups of foreign words, which for some reason did not previously find a place in dictionaries (explanatory and foreign words) and are now rightly returning to the lexicographical mainstream. These are, for example, words from the sphere of religion, names of rituals, church attributes, places of worship ( Advent, antiphonary, antiphonal chant, stichera, stupa, tantra, triodion, phelonion, banner etc.), words related to the life, way of life, art of other peoples and states, which have become widespread in our country due to the expansion and deepening of international and interstate contacts ( bonsai, hamburger, guohua, green card, intifada, karaoke, contras).

Popular dictionary of foreign words

Muzrukova T. G., Nechaeva I. V.
Popular dictionary of foreign words : about 5000 words / Edited by I.V. Nechaev. – M.: Azbukovnik.

Brief summary:

The dictionary is a revised and expanded edition of the "Concise Dictionary of Foreign Words", published by the Russian Language publishing house in 1995. It includes commonly used borrowings, in addition to the most famous, well-mastered everyday words by native speakers of the Russian language. The dictionary entry contains an interpretation of the word, etymological information, brief pronunciation and grammatical characteristics of the word, examples of its use in speech, and stable combinations. Much attention is paid to the description of figurative, expansive meanings of words. The authors sought to make the interpretations simple and understandable to any reader.

This edition has been replenished with recent foreign language borrowings, such as blockbuster, virtual, default, interactive, mass media, PR, slogan etc. Some dictionary entries have been updated with new meanings ( pirate, resume). In accordance with the recommendations of the "Russian Spelling Dictionary" (M., "Azbukovnik", 1999), the spelling of some borrowings, the spelling of which has so far fluctuated, has been clarified ( karate, weekend), as well as the use of capital letters. In some cases, word usage examples have been updated to reflect the times.

2.4. Translation dictionaries.

English-Russian dictionary

Dubrovin M. I.

English-Russian Dictionary: A Manual for Students. - 2nd ed. - M.: Education, 1991.

The dictionary is a textbook for senior secondary school students. It is designed for independent work students on texts of average difficulty.

The dictionary is compiled in accordance with the requirements of the school curriculum in foreign languages ​​for secondary schools. It contains approximately 8,000 words.

The first edition was published in 1985 under the title: “School English-Russian Dictionary.”

This dictionary is compiled for senior secondary school students. It contains approximately 8,000 words.

The English language, like Russian, consists of many tens of thousands of words. Thus, the largest dictionary of the English language contains more than 600,000 words, and the largest English-Russian dictionary contains about 150,000 words. However, not all words in a language are used equally often. A lot of research has been done and even several dictionaries have been published that indicate how often a particular English word is used. Using these dictionaries and analyzing a large number of popular science and socio-political texts, we selected these 8,000 most common words.

The main task of this dictionary is to reveal the meanings of English words in Russian. It also contains a lot of other information about English words. In order to fully use the information contained in the dictionary and master the ability to quickly find the desired word or meaning, you need to have a good knowledge of the structure of the dictionary and the system of abbreviations (notations) adopted in the dictionary. Therefore, before using the dictionary, you must carefully read the contents of the introductory article.

What does a dictionary consist of?

The dictionary consists of headwords and dictionary entries.

A headword is a word in bold type whose meaning is explained and often illustrated with examples.

All capital words, including geographical names, are arranged in the dictionary in alphabetical order." Moreover, if the first two letters in the words are the same, then the words are arranged taking into account the sequence of the third letters. If the first three letters are the same, then the fourth letters are taken into account, etc.

Muller's Russian-English Dictionary.

Preface to the first edition.

This Russian-English dictionary is basically a bilingual translation dictionary of the usual type, but at the same time it differs from other similar dictionaries in some features that may or may not be taken into account when using it, depending on the purpose it sets. himself turning to the dictionary, and on how much he knows Russian, on the one hand, and English, on the other..

One of the features of this dictionary is, first of all, that it pays more attention to the grammatical aspect of the word than is usually done in similar dictionaries.

The dictionary treats primarily words, and not their individual forms. Therefore, each form of a grammatically inflected word, if it is not particularly distinguished as its particular form, is, so to speak, a representative of the entire word as a whole, the entire set of its grammatical forms. So, for example, the form names. singular case numbers horse represents this whole word as a whole, with all its grammatical forms: horse, horses, horse, horses etc.; likewise English horse(horse) usually acts as a representative of the entire set of grammatical forms of this word: horse , horse's , horses , horses". Usually, the Russian word being translated and the English word that is its translation are given, if possible, in forms that correspond to each other as much as between the forms of Russian and English languages Some general correspondences can be established. More particular, special relationships between Russian and English forms, of course, cannot be reflected in the dictionary: they can only be determined on the basis of knowledge of grammar. Thus, although the dictionary takes into account, if possible, correspondences between Russian and English grammatical forms, and when translating well-known phraseological combinations, individual particular correspondences are also taken into account, nevertheless one should not always use only the grammatical form of the word that is given in the dictionary, but you need to apply your knowledge of grammar and, in certain cases, make some grammatical changes to the proposed translation. This applies, in particular, to translations of entire phrases or phrases, where the word order given in the translation or the verb tense used in it may often turn out to be unsuitable for a certain context. The introduction of various additional grammatical information into the dictionary significantly complicated the work of compiling it, as a result of which it , undoubtedly, it was not possible to avoid a number of errors relative to the adopted system. The authors and editors will be very grateful for all comments and suggestions.

2.5.Electronic dictionaries.

ABBYY Lingvo 12 electronic dictionaries.

There are situations when it is very important to find the most accurate translation option. And quickly. There must be a simple solution somewhere in this world.

It really exists and is called ABBYY Lingvo 12. This is the most complete electronic dictionary, which contains modern vocabulary from various thematic areas, both universal and special. More than a hundred dictionaries included in Lingvo (80% of them were published in 2003-2006) allow you to obtain detailed information about each word with variant meanings and examples of use. This means that with the help of Lingvo you will always be able to determine the only translation option that suits your needs. in this case, and eliminate the possibility of an annoying mistake.

The ABBYY Lingvo 12 dictionary is presented in three versions, which differ in the composition of languages ​​and dictionaries, but have the same interface and set of functions.

2.6. X - Translator PLATINUM Version:5.0.0.15

X - Translator PLATINUM - This is an editor-translator that provides the ability to translate text from a file, from the clipboard (including in automatic mode and with text accumulation), as well as when typing text on the keyboard in the editor window. The application provides simultaneous translation while typing, as well as minimizing the editor window into an icon in the SystemTray. In addition, there is a special function for intercepting keyboard input.

This version of the program includes several new functions and capabilities that allow you to quickly and easily configure the translation of various texts and make working with the program more convenient and efficient: Additional specialized dictionary "Commerce" for Russian-English, Russian-German and Russian-French translation directions. "On top of all windows" mode. Text accumulation mode when translating the clipboard. Text playback function using MicrosoftAgent technology.

A description of the listed new functions can be found in the corresponding help articles for the program. How to use the program:

To quickly translate text: Configure basic program settings. In the upper window of the program, type the text that you want to translate, or paste the text copied earlier into clipboard, or open the source document. Indicate from which language you want to translate into which language. Current translation direction indicated on the indicator in the status bar. Choose the right one theme template. The current theme template is indicated on the indicator in the status bar. Click the button Translate. The translation of the text will appear in the lower half of the window. If necessary, edit the source text or translation text. Save the received translation.

3. Conclusion.

Late 1990s and the beginning of the 21st century were marked by an extraordinary rise in lexicographic activity and the publication large quantity dictionaries. This was a consequence of a strong change in the socio-political, economic, cultural concepts of society, the expansion of international relations, the introduction of computer technology, which led to significant changes in the vocabulary of the Russian language, the emergence of a mass of neologisms, and changes in the meanings of existing words. Language transformations had to be recorded in new linguistic dictionaries. The changing economic structure of the country, the emergence of a large number of commercial publishing houses and the need for linguistic dictionaries in practical and educational fields have led to the publication of many “mass”, commercially profitable and publicly available dictionaries. However, their preparation is not given the attention that was possible with the centralized release of dictionaries, when each dictionary project was subjected to comprehensive scientific analysis and became an event in the linguistic world. The same can be said about the editorial preparation of dictionary publications.

4. List of used literature.

1. Abramov N. “Dictionary of Russian synonyms and similar meanings

expressions".

2. Dal V.I. "Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language."

3. Dubrovin M.I. "English-Russian Dictionary" Manual for students. - 2nd

ed.-M.: Education, 1991.

4. Zakharenko E. N., Komarova L. N., Nechaeva I. V. “New dictionary

foreign words" - M.: "Azbukovnik", 2003.

5. Kuznetsova A. I., Efremova T. F. “Dictionary of morphemes of the Russian language.”

6. Muller. "Russian-English dictionary".

7. "One-volume dictionary of the Russian language."

8. “Popular Dictionary of Foreign Words” Edited by I.V.

Nechaeva.M.: Azbukovnik.

9. "Russian spelling dictionary". Editorial Board: V.V. Lopatin (chief editor),

B. Z. Bukchina, N. A. Eskova and others - Moscow: "Azbukovnik", 1999.

10. Russian semantic dictionary. Under the general editorship. N. Yu. Shvedova. – M.:

"Azbukovnik", 1998.

11. "Dictionary of the Russian language." 4 volumes. Ed. A. P. Evgenieva. – 2nd ed.,

corr. and additional – M.: Russian language, 1981–1984.

1. Dictionaries in which words of a foreign language are explained using the means of their native language (and vice versa) are called translated (Russian-English dictionary, Czech-Russian dictionary, etc.). They can be either bilingual or multilingual.
2. Dictionaries that explain words found in the native language are also extremely common. The most famous and widely used among them are explanatory dictionaries, in which words are explained both from semantic and grammatical points of view, and from an expressive-stylistic point of view. They also give the spelling and pronunciation of the word, and sometimes etymological instructions.

In addition to words, explanatory dictionaries include phraseological units in their explanatory material. Phraseological phrases in them do not form special entries, but are included in the dictionary entries of those words that are their main constituent elements.
The vast majority of explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language are normative dictionaries, reflecting the rules and laws of the Russian literary language.
Explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language can be complex and aspectual. In the first, words are explained as facts of the lexical system of the language as a whole. Secondly, either individual communities of words are explained (synonyms, antonyms, paronyms, foreign words, etc.), or individual verbal characteristics (origin - in etymological dictionaries, stress - in accent dictionaries, etc.).
The first explanatory dictionary of the Russian language was the “Dictionary of the Russian Academy” (1789-1794).
A valuable lexicographical manual for anyone interested in Russian vocabulary and phraseology is the first edition published in 1863-1866. “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V. I. Dahl. The dictionary includes about 200 thousand words. It not only contains the vocabulary of Russian written speech of the 19th century, but also the words and phraseological units of living, colloquial speech are surprisingly fully and widely represented.
A remarkable scientific work reflecting the vocabulary of the Russian literary language, “as it has been formed since the time of Lomonosov,” is the unfinished dictionary of the Department of Russian Language and Literature of the Academy of Sciences. The first volume of it (A-D), ed. J. K. Grot was published in 1895, then the dictionary was published in separate issues under the editorship of. A. A. Shakhmatova (E - K), V. I. Chernyshev, L. V. Shcherba and others until 1937
Among explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language of the Soviet era, the first place deservedly belongs to the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” (1935-1940, vols. I-IV) ed. prof. D. N. Ushakov, compiled by prof. V.V. Vinogradov, prof. G. O. Vinokur, prof. B. A. Larin, associate professor S. I. Ozhegov, B. V. Tomashevsky. This dictionary, in terms of type and tasks, represents the dictionary of the “real Russian language”, “a dictionary of words now used by the classics, from Pushkin to Gorky”1, about the need for the creation of which V. I. Lenin spoke back in 1920.
Dictionary, ed. D. N. Ushakova is a standard dictionary of the modern Russian literary language. Its normativity is clearly reflected not only in instructions about the meaning of a word, its grammatical properties, expressive and stylistic qualities, spelling and literary pronunciation, but also in the very selection of linguistic material. The dictionary explains only the words of the modern Russian literary language (including commonly used new formations of the Soviet era). Regional words and special terms of narrow use are, as a rule, not included in the dictionary. In total, the dictionary contains 85,289 words. Currently, the dictionary is edited by D.N. Ushakova is in many ways outdated.
Based on the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed. D. N. Ushakov created the one-volume “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S. I. Ozhegov / the first edition was published in 1949; ninth, corrected and expanded, ed. N. Yu. Shvedova - in 1972). The dictionary includes about 57 thousand of the most common words of the modern Russian literary language.
From 1950 to 1965, 17 volumes of the “Dictionary of Modern Russian Literary Language” of the USSR Academy of Sciences, which was then awarded the Lenin Prize, were published. This dictionary is normative and explanatory-historical at the same time. It contains “all the lexical wealth of the Russian literary language with its grammatical characteristics, mainly from the era of Pushkin to the present day.”
Based on the card index of the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” of the USSR Academy of Sciences, a short academic “Dictionary of the Russian Language” was created in four volumes (M., 1957-1960; ed. 2, M., 1981 - 1984). It is a normative dictionary of the modern Russian literary language, very close in its profile and volume to the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language”, ed. D. N. Ushakova, naturally with appropriate changes in vocabulary.
Explanatory dictionaries can cover either the entire vocabulary of a national language, or only one or another part of it (dictionaries of a literary language, dialect dictionaries, dictionaries of writers, dictionaries of terms, abbreviations, etc.).
Dialect dictionaries can be constructed either as dictionaries that characterize the entire vocabulary of a particular dialect, dialect, or adverb, or as dictionaries that are a collection of dialect vocabulary as opposed to national vocabulary.
The most important of the dictionaries of the second type is the “Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary” of the Second Branch of the Academy of Sciences (1852; a large “Supplement” was published in 1858), despite serious shortcomings (insufficient amount of material, imperfect transmission of the sound of the word, not always correct characteristics of the dialect affiliation of the word, etc.), it, as the only complete dialect dictionary of a generalizing nature, has not lost its scientific significance to this day.
Among the dictionaries that reflect the specifics of the vocabulary of individual dialects (albeit with the same shortcomings as the “Experience” and “Addition” to it), the dictionaries of V. Bogoraz (“Regional Dictionary of the Kolyma Russian dialect”, 1901), N. Vasnetsov deserve attention (“Materials for an explanatory regional dictionary of the Vyatka dialect”, 1908), V. Dobrovolsky (“Smolensk regional dictionary”, 1914), G. Kulikovsky (“Dictionary of the regional Olonets dialect”, 1898), A. Podvysotsky (“Dictionary of the regional Arkhangelsk dialect” , 1885), A. Mirtova (“Don Dictionary”, 1929). In 1961, the “Concise Yaroslavl Regional Dictionary” by G. G. Melnichenko was published.
In 1965, the publication of the multi-volume “Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects” began, edited by. F. P. Filina (a number of issues have already been published; publication continues). This work is a comprehensive collection of dialect words recorded in all previously published regional dictionaries, dictionaries and lists (not only printed, but also handwritten). The creation of this general lexicographical work on dialectology is accompanied by the active work of our linguists in compiling a wide variety of dialect dictionaries of a regional and monographic nature. Among the latter, especially noteworthy is the “Dictionary of modern Russian folk dialect (village of Deulino, Ryazan district, Ryazan region)”, published in 1969 by the publishing house “Nauka”, ed. I. A. Ossovetsky, and “Dialect Dictionary of Personality” by V. P. Timofeev (Shadrinsk, 1971).
A special type of explanatory dictionaries are dictionaries of foreign words, which provide characteristics only of those borrowed words that, due to their narrow sphere of use, are recognized as “foreign”. Foreign words of widespread use, firmly ingrained in the flesh and blood of the Russian language (like room, soup, bed, market, raisins, etc.), are not interpreted in such dictionaries* Dictionaries of foreign words perform two tasks: 1) explain the meaning of something or another foreign word; 2) indicate its origin in the Russian language, IN CONNECTION with which the SOURCE LANGUAGE 1 $ original word is noted, sometimes instructions are also given regarding their grammatical properties and pronunciation. J
The most famous is the dictionary ed. I. V. Lekhina; F.N. Petrova and others (7th ed., revised. M., 1980). It explains*(explains 19 thousand foreign words, the most common in scientific, journalistic and artistic speech. The source language and the borrowed word in Latin transcription are indicated in parentheses after the word being explained, followed by an explanation of the meaning. If4 the word came into the Russian language through a language, then both the source language and the transmitter language are indicated.
When using a dictionary of foreign words, you should keep in mind that, as a rule, it identifies the actual occurrence of a word in a particular language with the etymological composition of the word.
In our lexicography there is only one dictionary of non-logisms. This is a dictionary-reference book on materials from the press and literature of the 60s, “New Words and Meanings,” ed. N. 3. Kotelova and Yu. S. Sorokin (M., 1971). The dictionary contains about 3,500 new words and meanings that appeared after the Great Patriotic War (especially in the 50-60s of the 20th century). A dictionary entry contains an interpretation of the semantics of a word, examples, and, in some cases, a stylistic note. Neologisms of later times are reflected in the book “New words and a dictionary of new words”, ed., N. Z. Kotelova (L., 1983.- P. 158-222) and in the dictionary: New words and knowledge / Ed. N. 3. Kotelova (M., 1984).
Proper names are explained in onomastic dictionaries of the Russian language. These are “Dictionary of Russian Personal Names” by N. A. Petrovsky (M., 1966) and “Brief Toponymic Dictionary” by V. A. Nikonov (M., 1966). As the first experiments of this kind, they are incomplete in material and not very perfect linguistically and lexicographically. Nevertheless, this work is necessary and useful. N. A. Petrovsky's dictionary contains about 2,600 male and female names known to the Russian language. The “Concise Toponymic Dictionary” contains historical and linguistic information about approximately four thousand different geographical names currently used in the Russian language. The dictionary entry interprets not only the toponym, but also the corresponding geographical object, so V. A. Nikonov’s reference book is semi-encyclopedic, semi-linguistic in nature.
The abbreviations dictionary deciphers abbreviated words in the Russian language. About 15 thousand words are contained in the “Dictionary of Russian Language Abbreviations” by D. I. Alekseev et al. (2nd ed., corrected and expanded, 1977).
The writer's language dictionary covers vocabulary used in all of the author's works. An example of a dictionary of this type should be called “Dictionary of the Pushkin Language” (vol. 1-4. M. 1956-1961, editor-in-chief academician V.V. Vinogradov).
In addition, explanatory dictionaries of the language of individual works are being created. An example is the “Dictionary of M. Gorky’s Autobiographical Trilogy” (edited by L. S. Kovtun; published in separate editions since 1974).
The object of description and characteristics of phraseological dictionaries is no longer individual words, but entire phraseological units. These dictionaries explain the meanings of phraseological units, their origin and expressive properties.
In 1967, the first edition of the “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published (edited by A. I. Molotkov). This dictionary offers explanations of the meanings and contexts of use of more than 5 thousand phraseological units of the Russian language. Outside the phraseological dictionary were proverbs and sayings and stable combinations of words like: 1) Egyptian work, 2) win, 3) fall into hysterics, 4) from year to year, 5) pansies, etc. Presented in the dictionary under ed. As a result of this, A.I. Molotkov’s phraseological material is significantly inferior to that which we find in explanatory dictionaries (see above).
“Dictionary of Russian Proverbs and Sayings” (M., 1966), compiled by V.P. Zhukov, contains a large and interesting material devoted to phraseological units of a communicative nature, structurally equal to sentences.
Of the old reference books on Russian phraseology, the most famous and informative is M. I. Mikhelson’s dictionary “Russian thought and speech. Yours and someone else's. Experience of Russian phraseology. Collection of figurative words and allegories" (vol. I-II, 1903-1904).
In addition to the dictionary of M. I. Mikhelson, among the works devoted to Russian phraseology, one should first of all note the collections of the same name “Winged Words” by S. V. Maksimov (1st ed., 1890) and N. S. and M. G Ashukins ( 1st ed., 1955; 2nd ed., 1960). Despite the fact that these works were compiled by non-specialists and therefore have very significant shortcomings both in the classification of the material and in its explanation, they are useful, one (Maksimova) for explaining some turns of colloquial phraseology, the other (Ashukinykh) for explanations of some turns of book phraseology that appeared in the 20th century.
Phraseological material is covered to a certain extent in explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language. It is especially richly presented in the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V. Dahl, in the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language”, ed. D. N. Ushakov and in the “Dictionary of Modern Russian Literary Language” of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

1. In addition to complex explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries that explain words used in the vocabulary of the native language also include: aspect dictionaries (dictionaries of synonyms, derivational, etymological, etc.).

In dictionaries of synonyms, with the help of some words the meanings and expressive-stylistic properties of others, which are synonymous, are explained. Dictionaries of synonyms are collections of synonymous series with the core word of the series as the headword. There is not yet a scientific dictionary of synonyms in the Russian literary language, covering all the main synonymic series.
The book by V. N. Klyueva “A short dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language” (1956; 2nd ed., 1961) is useful. The vocabulary of the dictionary in the second edition is about 3 thousand words. At the end of the book, as an appendix, an alphabetical index of synonyms (with the main words highlighted) and an index of synonymous series are given. The dictionary entry in the “Concise Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language” consists of an indication of the synonymous series, an explanation of the difference that exists between synonyms, and examples.
In 1968, the publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia" published the "Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language", compiled by Z. E. Alexandrova. The dictionary contains about 9 tu. synonymous series.
In 1970-1971 The two-volume “Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language” was published by the USSR Academy of Sciences, ed. A. P. Evgenieva. In 1975, a one-volume “Dictionary of Synonyms” was created on its basis. The dictionary is equipped with an introduction outlining the author's point of view on the problem of synonyms, as well as explaining the features of constructing the dictionary. The dictionary provides a detailed semantic and stylistic explanation of all words of the synonymous series, then illustrated with examples.
More than 2 thousand pairs or groups of homonyms are contained in the “Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language” by O. S. Akhmanova (M., 1974).
Antonym dictionaries contain pairs of words united by opposite meanings. Dictionaries of antonyms by L. A. Vvedenskaya (Rostov-on-Don, 1971) and N. P. Kolesnikov (edited by N. M. Shansky. Tbilisi, 1972) are addressed to teachers and students: The most complete is the “Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language” "M. R. Lvova (edited by L. A. Novikov. M., 1985).
Word-formation dictionaries introduce the reader to the morphological structure of a word. The first attempt to create such an educational and methodological manual as an explanatory and normative reference book for teachers is “School word-formation dictionary” 3. A. Potikha, in the second edition (M., 1964), ed. and with 1 foreword by Corr. Member. USSR Academy of Sciences S. G. Barkhudarova. This dictionary introduces the reader to the morphemic structure of about 25 thousand words.
In 1985, the “Word Formation Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published.
A. N. Tikhonov, which includes about 145,000 words.
Forms of inflection are reflected in the “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language”. A. A. Zaliznyak (M., 1977). The dictionary contains characteristics of about 100 thousand words.
Historical dictionaries contain information about how a word sounded, what meanings and grammatical properties it had in the past. There is not yet a real historical dictionary of the Russian language that would give the history of the word (i.e., the time of its emergence as a linguistic unit, the change and development of its meanings, the modification of its word-formation structure and sound, etc.).
Russian lexicography currently has dictionaries by A. Duvernoy (Materials for a dictionary of the Old Russian language, 1894) and G. Kochin (Materials for a terminological dictionary) that are small in material. Ancient Rus'”, 1937) and the dictionary of I. I. Sreznevsky “Materials for a dictionary of the Old Russian language based on written monuments” (in three volumes and one additional, 1893-1912; phototypically republished in 1958).
The dictionary of I. I. Sreznevsky is an extensive collection of vocabulary material (about 120 thousand words) from ancient Russian monuments of the 11th-15th centuries. a wide variety of genres and content. Despite a number of shortcomings (insufficiently satisfactory classification of the meanings of words and their interpretation, lack of stylistic marks on words and a historical perspective in determining the meaning, lack of differentiation between Old Russian and Old Church Slavonic facts, etc.), this work is still indispensable when reading Old Russian monuments and studying Old Russian language. The dictionary contains, in alphabetical order, all words without exception and cases of their use from monuments up to the 15th century. and almost all from the monuments of the 15th century.
A historical dictionary, containing, however, no longer common nouns, but proper (and only anthroponymic) names, is also the “Dictionary of Old Russian personal proper names”
N. M. Tupikova (St. Petersburg, 1903).
In 1975-1986. 11 issues (A - H) of the “Dictionary of the Russian Language of the XI-XVII centuries” appeared, compiled at the Institute of Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences, publication continues.
The “Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 18th Century” began to be published, edited by. Yu. S. Sorokina. In 1984-1985 Two issues were published (A - B, L., Science).
The task of an etymological dictionary is to explain the origin of words of a particular language or language family. In this kind of dictionaries, instructions are given regarding the original or borrowed nature of the word, it is indicated from which word it was formed, in some cases - through what method of formation it arose, what its most ancient meaning and what feature was used as the basis for the name. In the etymological dictionary, the reader receives an answer to the question of where exactly the foreign words that have firmly entered the vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language were borrowed from (as indicated, such words are not explained by the dictionary of foreign words).
The most famous etymological dictionary of the Russian language is the “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by A. Preobrazhensky (from a to suley in issues of 1910-1914, from body to yaschur in “Proceedings of the Institute of the Russian Language”, vol. I, 1949; in 1960 The dictionary was published in full using photomechanical methods).
On German An etymological dictionary of the Russian language by M. Vasmer (“Russisches etymologisches Wdrterbuch”. Heidelberg. 1950-1958) was published in Germany. In 1964-1973. it came out in the translation of the member - cor. USSR Academy of Sciences O. N. Trubachev in Russian.
In 1961, the “Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” appeared by N.M. Shansky, V.V. Ivanov and T.V. Shanskaya (under the editorship of Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences S.G. Barkhudarov). The third revised and expanded edition of this dictionary as a special manual for teachers was published in 1975.
Since 1963, the “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” has been published (edited by N. M. Shansky) - a multi-volume reference book compiled taking into account all the latest achievements of Soviet and foreign etymology and lexicography. In its general word-formation and historical character, this dictionary is adjacent to the “Concise Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by N. M. Shansky, V. V. Ivanov, T. V. Shanskaya. Its main difference from a brief etymological dictionary is the size of the dictionary (as a maximalist one, it includes all words that require etymological interpretation) and the presence of an appropriate scientific apparatus, consisting of critical bibliographic data, parallels for native Russian words and comparative material for borrowings. Currently, 8 issues (A - K) have been published.
In 1970, G. P. Tsyganenko’s work, “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language,” appeared specially addressed to teachers (Kyiv, Radyanska School).
As reference material for teachers, the “Russian Language at School” magazine (1979, No. 1-6; 1980, No. 1-2) published “A Brief Etymological Dictionary of Russian Phraseology” by N. M. Shansky,
V. I. Zimina and A. V. Filippov. In 1987, it was published as a separate book by the Russian Language publishing house. As a reference material for teachers, the journal “Russian Language in Skoda” published “A Brief Word-Formation-Etymological Dictionary of Russian Polysemy and Single-Root Homonymy” by N. M. Shansky, N. N. Romanova and A. V. Filippov (1983, No. 4- 6; 1984-1986, No. 1-5).
Reverse dictionaries are an alphabetical collection of words existing in a language, arranged in alphabetical order not from left to right, but, on the contrary, from right to left.
The first complete reverse dictionary of the modern Russian language is the dictionary of G. Bielfeldt published in the GDR (Riicklaufiges Worterbuch der russischen Sprache der Gegenwart. Berlin. 1958). It contains about 80 thousand words of the modern Russian literary language, extracted from our latest explanatory dictionaries and the “Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language”, ed. S. I. Ozhegova and A. B. Shapiro.
In 1968, a reverse dictionary appeared in Poland, created on the basis of “Materials for a dictionary of the Old Russian language” by I. I. Sreznevsky, ed. A. Obrembska-Jablonska: Index a tergo do materiaiow do stownika j^zyka staroruskiego I. I. Srezniewskiego. Warsaw, 1968.
In 1974, the largest “Reverse Dictionary of the Russian Language” (about 125 thousand words) was published, compiled by the editors of Russian dictionaries of the publishing house “Soviet Encyclopedia”.
The main task of frequency dictionaries is to familiarize the reader with the degree of use of words in speech. Being the result of one or another statistical study of a certain lexical material, frequency dictionaries include in their composition (with indications of the frequency of use of the word and the number of texts in which it appears) either absolutely all lexical units extracted from the corresponding material, or only those of them, frequency of use which is not less than some given value.
A real frequency dictionary should be considered, in essence, only one in which all the words found in the analyzed material have a frequency qualification. A complete frequency dictionary of the modern Russian literary language can be a dictionary of the type just indicated, moreover, based on statistical studies of a sufficient number of texts that are very different in expressive and stylistic terms. There is no such dictionary yet. However, there are few frequency dictionaries of the Russian language and those that are built on limited material and are actually frequency dictionaries of the most frequently used words.
G. G. Yosselson's work “The Russian Word Count” (Detroit, 1953) is built on material of a wide variety of genres and is based on a statistical analysis of the use of about one million words. The main drawback of this dictionary, which to a certain extent reduces its statistical value, is the author’s undifferentiated use of chronologically different texts, in particular even material that does not belong to modern speech, and to literary use in the 19th century.
“Frequency dictionary of modern Russian literary language”
E. A. Steinfeldt (Tallinn, 1963) contains 2,500 of the most commonly used words, according to the author. For statistical analysis, she took 400 thousand words from modern texts of various genres. In addition to all kinds of additional materials, this dictionary contains three lists of words: 1) a general list by frequency, 2) a list of words by parts of speech, and 3) a general list of words by alphabet.
“Frequency Dictionary of the Russian Language,” ed. L.N. Zasorina (Moscow, 1977) was compiled on the basis of processing by means of computer technology one million layer uses, which gave 40 thousand dictionary units. "
More recently, we also have “regional” frequency dictionaries: the language of the newspaper G. P. Polyakova and G. Ya. Solganik (M. 1971) and
scientific literature by E. M. Stepanova (M., 1970).
Frequency dictionaries not only have great practical importance (for compiling textbooks and mini-dictionaries, in works on machine translation, etc.), but can also be used to study some theoretical issues of lexicology.

1. Purely practical are spelling dictionaries, which indicate the spelling of a word, orthoepic dictionaries, which simultaneously report the pronunciation and stress characteristic of a word, and correctness dictionaries, which provide information about literary norms of grammar and word usage (in relation to the most frequent and difficult cases).

Spelling dictionaries began to appear as special reference books on the spelling of words at the end of the 19th century.
The first such dictionary, containing about 3 thousand words, was the “Reference Index”, published by Academician. J-K-Grot as an appendix to his work “Russian Spelling” (1885), which was the first scientifically based attempt to unify Russian spelling.
Among the spelling dictionaries that appeared in Soviet times, the repeatedly published “Spelling Dictionary” by D. N. Ushakov and S. E. Kryuchkov is especially famous (the first edition dates back to 1933).
After the streamlining of Russian spelling in 1956, the most important spelling reference book - taking into account the changes made - became the academic “Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language”, ed. S. I. Ozhegova and A. B. Shapiro (first edition published in 1956). This dictionary contains about 110 thousand words. words The 13th, revised and expanded edition was published in 1974, ed. S. G. Barkhudarova, I. F. Protchenko and L.I. Skvortsova. Along with spelling, the Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language also reflects the currently available phonetic, accentological and grammatical variants of words, and also contains information of a morphological and orthographic nature.
A large and useful spelling dictionary, including only “difficult cases,” contains the “Reference Book of the Proofreader” by K. I. Bylinsky and A. N. Zhilin (1960). It includes, in addition to common nouns, also proper names (cf.: Avenir, -a, Auxentius, -ya, Agrippina, -y, Callistratus, -a, Erebus, -a, etc.). In this dictionary we find many (sometimes narrow in scope of their use) words that are not in the academic spelling dictionary.
One of the most complex issues The dictionary-reference book “Together or Separately?”, published in 1972, is dedicated to Russian orthography. (about 43 thousand words). Compiled by B. 3. Bookchina, J1. P. Kalakutskaya, L. K. Cheltsova, ed. D. E. Rosenthal. In 1982, a revised and expanded edition of this dictionary-reference book was published: B. Z. Bukchina, L. P. Kalakutskaya. “Together or separately?” (about 82 thousand words). "
In 1984, the dictionary-reference book by D. E. Rosenthal “Capital or lowercase?” was published. (about 8500 words and phrases).
Among the orthoepic dictionaries, the dictionary-reference book “Russian literary pronunciation and stress”, ed. R. I. Avanesov and S. I. Ozhegov (the first edition appeared in 1955 and contained about 50 thousand words).
Based on the second edition of this dictionary (1959), the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published in 1983, ed. R.I. Avanesova. Authors: S. N. Borunova, V. L. Vorontsova, N. A. Eskova. The dictionary contains about 63,500 words.
A useful reference book on accentology is also the “Dictionary of Accents for Radio and Television Workers” (compiled by F. Ageenko and M. Zarva), created in 1960 under the leadership of K. I. Bylinsky. The second, revised and expanded edition was published in 1967.
Manuals containing information on the most difficult and at the same time constantly occurring cases of the use of words and forms were and remain, in general, rare, although the first dictionary of this kind - “Reference Place of the Russian Language” - appeared back in 1843. From pre-revolutionary works of this profile, in addition to the well-known work of V. I. Chernyshev “Correctness and purity of Russian speech” (parts I and II, Pg., 1914-1915), perhaps only “Dictionary of incorrect, difficult and dubious words” deserves serious attention , synonyms and expressions in Russian speech” by I. I. Ogienko (Kiev, 1914). Even the vocabulary and nature of this kind of aids have not yet been essentially determined.
Dictionary-reference book “Correctness of Russian speech”, ed.
S.I. Ozhegova (compiled by L.P. Krysin and L.I. Skvortsov. M., 1962) is the first experience of a normative manual specifically devoted to issues of word usage. It “contains about 400 dictionary entries covering the most typical cases difficulties of modern word usage."
Accentological, pronunciation, formal grammatical, derivational and formative variants of words are discussed in the dictionary-reference book “Difficulties of word usage and variants of norms of the Russian literary language” (edited by K. S. Gorbachevich. Leningrad, 1973). An important task of this dictionary is to “prevent against typical, common errors in speech.”
In 1976, the “Dictionary of Difficulties of the Russian Language” by D. E. Rosenthal and M. A. Telenkova appeared. The authors’ goal is to give the reader information about the spelling, pronunciation, and formation of words, to introduce them to grammatical and stylistic characteristics, compatibility, management, and the correct use of words.
In the same year, a monograph by L.K. Graudina, V.A. Itskovich and L.P. Katlinskaya “Grammatical Correctness of Russian Speech” was published. Experience of a frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants.” The book reflects variants of grammatical forms and constructions. The dictionary “answers a wide variety of questions in the field of grammatical stylistics.” In 1986, the “Dictionary of grammatical difficulties of the Russian language” by G. F. Efremova and V. G. Kostomarov was published. It is an aspect dictionary that describes and interprets the most complex phenomena of Russian grammar for educational purposes.
One of the types of explanatory dictionaries of a normative nature are dictionaries of paronyms. There is no doubt that modern dictionaries of paronyms have appeared based on the selection of material from undifferentiated cases of all kinds of irregularities, noted: starting with the “Reference place of the Russian word” by N. A. Grech, 1839. (see indication of cases of confusion of words like gorbunya - gorbushka, Chinese - Chinese, etc.).
As the first experience of a dictionary of paronyms, one can name the reference dictionary by Yu. A. Belchikov and M. S. Panyusheva “Difficult cases of using cognate words of the Russian language” (M., 1968).” The work contains 180 groups (mostly pairs) of words with the same root, differing in their inherent meanings and usage. Paronyms are arranged in alphabetical order. The dictionary entry provides an interpretation of paronyms, then their verbal connections and use in the modern Russian literary language; The dictionary entry concludes with a section “Erroneously,” which “presents examples of erroneous or inaccurate use of cognates.”
A significantly larger dictionary is the “Dictionary of Paronyms of the Russian Language” by N. P. Kolesnikov (Tbilisi, 1971). This book contains 1432 nests of paronyms, which combines more than 3 thousand words. Paronymic nests are given in alphabetical order. At the end of the dictionary there is an index that makes it easier to find the necessary “dubious” word. The dictionary entry consists of paronyms and interpretation of their meanings.
In 1974, the book “Paronyms in the Russian Language” by O. V. Vishnyakova appeared, which characterizes paronyms as a linguistic unit and a small dictionary.

1. Educational dictionaries differ in the volume of selected lexical material, selection principles, focus on a particular program, and taking into account the level of knowledge of readers and students.

For secondary school students, a short “Spelling Dictionary” by D. N. Ushakov and S. E. Kryuchkov is published annually, which was first published in 1934. In preparation for the 27th edition (1972), the dictionary was checked using new spelling reference books , new words are included in the dictionary (nuclear-powered ship, cybernetics, astronaut, etc.), and certain outdated words and forms are excluded.
A new type of comprehensive school dictionary is the “School Grammar and Spelling Dictionary” by B. T. Panov and
A. V. T?kucheva (M., 1985). The dictionary entry contains spelling and orthoepic information about the word, its morphemic division is noted, and some of the most difficult grammatical forms are indicated. In addition, an interpretation is given of the meanings of those words that students find difficult to understand.
In 1978, A. N. Tikhonov’s “School Word-Formation Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published, built on the principle of word-formation nests, i.e., alphabetically arranged non-derivative (from a synchronic point of view) words with all the same root derivatives. The dictionary makes it possible to get acquainted with the word-formation structure and morphemic composition of more than 30 thousand words.
In 1980, the “School Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language” by M. R. Lvov and the “School Phraseological Dictionary” by V. P. Zhukov were published. These dictionaries introduce students to the expressive means of the Russian language. The use of antonyms and phraseological units is illustrated with examples from works of fiction. The phraseological dictionary provides information about the origin of some phraseological units.
In 1981, the “School Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published by M. S. Lapatukhin, E. V. Skorlupovskaya, G. P. Snetova, ed. F. P. Filina.
In 1983, the first “School Dictionary of Foreign Words” was published
V. V. Odintsova, G. P. Smolitskaya, E. I. Golanova, I. A. Vasilevskaya, ed. V.V. Ivanova. In it, students can receive information about the meaning and use of the most common foreign words in the Russian language.
For non-Russians studying the Russian language, in addition to simple translation dictionaries, dictionaries of a special nature are also published. Among them, it is worth noting, first of all, explanatory dictionaries of the active type: “4000 most common words in the Russian language”, ed. N. M. Shansky (M., 1978, ed. 2, M., 1981), “A short explanatory dictionary of the Russian language (for foreigners),” ed. V. V. Rozanova (M., 1978), “ Educational dictionary combinability of words in the Russian language”, ed. P. N. Denisova and V. V. Morkovkina (M., 1978), “Educational phraseological dictionary of the Russian language” by E. A. Bystrova, A. P. Okuneva and N. M. Shansky (L., 1984). Basic vocabulary and phraseology in various Russian-foreign language versions are presented in “4000 most common words in the Russian language”, ed. N. M. Shansky (in English, German, French, Spanish, Italian, Slovak, Czech, Bulgarian, Polish, Vietnamese, Romanian, Uzbek languages, - M., 1975- 1984) and “700 phraseological turns of the Russian language” by N. M. Shansky and E. A. Bystrova (in English, French, German, Italian, Czech, Finnish, Spanish, Uzbek, Turkish, Dari, Taj ., Turkic languages, - M. 1975-1985).