How did Cicero die? The meaning of the word cicero in the big Russian encyclopedic dictionary. Other biographical material

CICERO (cicero) Mark Tullius (106-43 BC), Roman politician, orator and writer. Supporter of the republican system. Of the writings, 58 judicial and political speeches, 19 treatises on rhetoric, politics, philosophy, and more than 800 letters have been preserved. The writings of Cicero are a source of information about the era of civil wars in Rome.

CICERO Mark Tullius(Cicero Marcus Tullius) (January 3, 106, Arpina - December 7, 43 BC, near Caieta, now Gaeta), Roman orator, theorist of eloquence and philosopher, statesman, poet, writer and translator. The surviving heritage consists of speeches, treatises on the theory of eloquence, philosophical writings, letters and poetic passages.

Biographical information

A native of the town of Arpina (120 km southeast of Rome) from a family of horsemen, Cicero has been living in Rome since 90, studying eloquence with the jurist Mucius Scaevola Augur. In 76 he is elected quaestor and performs magisterial duties in the province of Sicily. As a quaestor, having completed his magistracy, he becomes a member of the Senate and goes through all the stages of his Senate career: at 69 - aedile, 66 - praetor, 63 - consul. As a consul, he suppressed the anti-Senate conspiracy of Catiline, receiving the honorary title of Father of the Fatherland in the form of recognition of his merits (for the first time in the history of Rome, he was awarded not for military exploits). In 50-51 - governor of the province of Cilicia in Asia Minor.

Starting at 81 and throughout his life, he delivered political and judicial speeches with unfailing success, gaining a reputation as the greatest orator of his time. The most famous speeches can be named: “In defense of Roscius of Ameria” (80), speeches against Verres (70), “In defense of the poet Archia” (62), four speeches against Catiline (63), “On the answer haruspices", "On the consular provinces", in defense of Sestius (all three - 56), thirteen speeches against Mark Antony (the so-called Philippics) - 44 and 43.

Since the mid 50s. Cicero is increasingly immersed in studies of the theory of state and law and the theory of eloquence: "On the State" (53), "On the Orator" (52), "On the Laws" (52). After the civil war of 49-47 (Cicero joined the Senate party of Gnaeus Pompey) and the establishment of the dictatorship of Caesar, Cicero until the end of 44 lives mainly outside of Rome in his rural villas. These years are characterized by a special rise in Cicero's creative activity. In addition to continuing work on the theory and history of eloquence ("Brutus", "Orator", "On the best form of orators", all three - 46), he creates the main works on philosophy, among which the most important and famous are "Hortensius" (45 BC). ; preserved in numerous extracts and fragments), "Teachings of Academicians" and "Tusculan Conversations" (all - 45); By 44, two works of a special genre belong - “Cato, or On Old Age” and “Lelius, or On Friendship”, where Cicero created idealized and bordering on the verge of artistic images of the great Romans of the previous century who were especially close to him spiritually - Cato Censorius, Scipio Emilian, Gaia Lelia.

In March 44 was killed; in December, Cicero returns to Rome to try to convince the Senate to protect the republican system from the heirs of Caesar's dictatorship - the triumvirs Octavian, Antony and Lepidus. His speeches and actions were unsuccessful. At the insistence of Antony, his name was included in the proscription lists, and on December 7, 43, Cicero was killed.

The main problems of creativity

Origin from a small Italian municipality, where the Tullian family was rooted from time immemorial, was the biographical basis for the doctrine of “two homelands” developed by Cicero in the treatises “On the Orator” (I, 44) and “On the Laws” (II, 5): every Roman citizen has two homelands - by place of birth and by citizenship, and "the homeland that gave birth to us is no less dear to us than the one that accepted us." Here, a fundamental fact of the history and culture of the ancient world was reflected: no matter how extensive the later state formations, monarchies or empires, the socially and psychologically real starting cell of social life remained the city-state that continued to live in their composition - the civil community (“On Duties” I, 53). Therefore, the Republic of Rome, which by the time of Cicero covered vast territories, was not exhausted for him by its military-political and state-legal content. He saw in it a form of life, an intensely experienced immediate value, and considered its basis the solidarity of citizens, the ability of everyone, having understood the interests of the community and the state, to act in accordance with them. The whole point was to correctly explain these interests to them, prove and convince them with the power of words - eloquence was for Cicero a form of spiritual self-realization, a guarantee of the social dignity of a citizen, the political and spiritual greatness of Rome (Brutus, 1-2; 7).

Two paths led to the heights of eloquence. One consisted in serving the state and its interests with a word on the basis of disinterested devotion to them, civic prowess (virtus) and extensive knowledge of politics, law, philosophy (On finding material I, 2; On the orator III, 76); the other way was to master the formal techniques that allowed the orator to convince any audience to take the decision he needed (On finding material I, 2-5; On the speaker 158; speech in defense of Cluentius 139); the art of this latter kind was denoted in Rome by the Greek term rhetoric. Cicero's desire to combine in the training of an orator, as in any training in general, a high spiritual content with practical techniques provided him with an important place in the theory and history of pedagogy. However, in the specific conditions of Ancient Rome, both of these sides of the matter became less and less compatible: the crisis of the republic in the 1st century, which led to its replacement by an empire, consisted precisely in the fact that its political practice more and more clearly turned out to be oriented towards the interests of only the ruling elite of the city of Rome. and came into more and more acute conflict with the interests of the development of the state as a whole and with its conservative system of values. The moral perspective, on the one hand, and the provision of immediate interests, whether it be state leadership, a client in court, or one's own, on the other, were in constant and deepening contradiction, and the unity of virtus and political - even more widely: life - practice was increasingly revealed as a feature not of the real, but of the ideal Rome, as its artistic and philosophical image.

All the key moments of the activity of Cicero and his work, as well as the perception of him by subsequent centuries, are associated with this contradiction.

The moral code of the Roman Republic was based on conservative fidelity to the traditions of the community, on legality and right, and respect for the success achieved on their basis. Cicero strove to be faithful to this system of norms, and as a statesman and orator, he repeatedly followed it. But faithful to the code of the senatorial nobility, who more and more clearly sought - and with great success - to use this code in their favor, Cicero just as often turned to purely rhetorical devices and built speeches in defense of not moral standards, but benefits: see agreement to speak two years before Catiline’s conspiracy in his own defense, speech in defense of the undeniably criminal Gaius Rabiria or Annius Milo, etc. This inconsistency was blamed on him and considered as his fundamental feature by Renaissance humanists and learned historians of the 19th century (T. Mommsen and his school).

Against the background of the practical activities of a politician and a judicial orator in Cicero, the need to overcome this fundamental contradiction lived and grew. One of the ways was for Cicero to constantly enrich his theory of eloquence with Greek philosophy, and the Roman tradition and the system of values ​​in general - with the spiritual experience of Hellas. He lived in Greece three times for a long time, translated a lot from Greek, constantly refers to Greek thinkers, calls him “our deity” (Letters to Atticus IV, 16), sees the dignity of the Roman magistrate in his ability to be guided in his activities by the practical interests of the Senate Republic, but in the same time and philosophy (letter to Cato, January 50), “and since the meaning and teaching of all the sciences that show a person the right path in life is contained in the mastery of that wisdom, which the Greeks call philosophy, then it is something and I thought it necessary to state it in Latin” (Tusculan Conversations I, 1). The content of the writings of Cicero in the 40s. become politics and eloquence of a special kind - saturated with philosophy and law, become images of Rome and the Romans of bygone times, summing up in an idealized form the spiritual traditions of Greco-Roman antiquity. During the years of the civil war and dictatorship, this ideological position was finally revealed as a cultural norm independent of life practice (Letters to Atticus IX, 4, 1 and 3; Cato 85; Lelius 99 and 16), but called to live in it and correct it. This side of the thought and activity of Cicero became in the 20th century. the basis in the evaluation and study of his legacy (after the appearance of a collective article about him in the Real Encyclopedia for the Study of Classical Antiquity by Pauli-Wissow (1939) and works based on it.

The book contains translations of fragments of writings, speeches and letters of the ancient Roman orator, philosopher and politician Marcus Tullius Cicero. His original ideas about the ways and means of educating compatriots had a significant impact on the development of the Western pedagogical tradition.

The book includes an extensive pedagogical commentary that explains the terms and introduces the content of the selected fragments into the context of Cicero's philosophical and pedagogical constructions. The commentary is divided into introductory and concluding articles, as well as page footnotes and articles that precede each of the sections and briefly characterize the compositional structure of Cicero's texts.

The book will be useful to researchers, teachers, doctoral students, graduate students and undergraduates in the areas of pedagogical training, as well as to all those interested in the emergence of the humanistic tradition in pedagogy.

Dialogues. About the state. About laws

The two political and philosophical works of Cicero brought to the attention of the reader - "On the State" and "On the Laws" serve as an excellent example of Roman prose and contain a presentation of the theories of state and law in ancient Greece and Rome.

They are written as dialogues, i.e. conversations: the dialogue “On the State” is conducted by Scipio Africanus the Younger and his friends, members of the so-called “Scipio Circle”; the dialogue "On the Laws" is conducted by the author himself, Mark Cicero, his brother Quintus Cicero and Titus Pomponius Atticus.

These writings of Cicero, which at one time also had a political orientation, had a great influence on the writers of the early Christian era, on the writers and scientists of the Renaissance, and on the French enlighteners (for example, Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws). Both dialogues are outstanding monuments of world culture.

Selected writings

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC) was an outstanding political figure, philosopher and theoretician, but above all he was an orator whose famous speeches are the pinnacle of Roman fiction.

In addition to speeches, this volume of the "Library of Ancient Literature" includes three treatises of Cicero, dressed in the form of relaxed dialogues and in skill not inferior to his speeches.

On the limits of good and evil. Stoic paradoxes

The book consists of philosophical treatises by the famous speaker and writer "On the Limits of Good and Evil" and "Paradoxes of the Stoics".

The first - "De finibus bonorum et malorum" - was translated more than 100 years ago (translator P.P. Gvozdev, 1889, Kazan) and has long become a bibliographic rarity. The second - "Paradoxa stoicorum" - has not been translated into Russian before.

The introductory article introduces the content of the treatise into the context of both the general philosophical constructions of Cicero and the system of philosophical theories of Hellenism. A general characteristic of the compositional structure of the treatise is given, an analysis of its main content aspects in comparison with other philosophical writings of antiquity is given.

The book includes historical and real notes, a historical and philosophical commentary, an explanation of philosophical terms, definitions, proofs, etc., as well as a philological commentary, which examines the author's work of Cicero himself, the changes he makes to Greek sources, and gives an interpretation of dark places of text. For professionals and a wide range of readers.

About old age. About friendship. About Responsibilities

Three of Cicero's later works - the dialogue (i.e. conversation) "On Old Age", the dialogue "On Friendship" and the treatise "On Duties" were written by him on political and philosophical topics: on the significance of old age in human life; about the political wisdom of the elderly and their value to society; about friendship as a union between citizens who are close in political views; on the moral foundations of state activity and on civic duty; about moral issues. In the dialogue "On Friendship" and in the treatise "On Duties", written by Cicero after the assassination of Caesar, there are also echoes of events from the time of the fall of the republican system in Rome.

Both dialogues and the treatise "On Duties" had a great influence on the thinkers and writers of late antiquity, early Christianity, the Renaissance and on the French Enlightenment and are often quoted by them. Representing outstanding monuments of world culture, they are at the same time examples of Roman prose.

Speaker

The Orator is one of Cicero's three treatises on oratory, along with Brutus and On the Orator. Cicero's treatises are not only a monument to the ancient theory of literature, but also a monument to ancient humanism in general, which had a profound influence on the entire history of European culture.

Translation and comments by M.L. Gasparov.

Letters to Atticus, relatives, brother Quintus, M. Brutus

The heyday of Cicero's activity coincides with the last period of civil wars in Rome. The Republic was dying in terrible convulsions. The last formidable uprising of slaves, led by Spartacus, was suppressed. Roman democracy, bled dry and largely declassed, was no longer capable of major uprisings.

In essence, only one real force remained in the political arena: the professional military, which was led by unprincipled politicians who sought personal power and enrichment. Pompey, Caesar, Antony, Octavian - there were almost no definite social class groups behind them. But behind them stood the army, and they were strong with that passionate thirst for "order", which every year more and more embraced Roman society.

The position of more principled politicians - Cicero, Brutus, Cato - in this era was incredibly difficult. Those of them that were straightforward and irreconcilable died, although with glory, but without achieving anything by their death. Those who were flexible and inclined to compromise rushed from side to side and also perished, only ingloriously ... Of course, Cicero's political and personal instability, sometimes bordering on frivolity, was to a certain extent the result of his character. But to an even greater extent, it was a consequence of the class affiliation of Cicero and the general political situation. In this respect he was typical of his time.

Speeches

The literary heritage of Cicero is very large and varied. First of all, his fame is undoubtedly based on speeches. Although not all of his speeches have come down to us, the number of surviving ones is large enough, and their character is sufficiently clearly expressed, so that our idea of ​​\u200b\u200bhis oratorical talent is completely complete and exhaustive.

Marcus Cicero was born into a privileged family in Arpino. He dreamed of becoming a judicial orator and received a brilliant, by that standards, education necessary for this position. Mark also traveled to Greece, where he developed his talent as an orator, studying law and philosophy. Having barely begun his career, the Roman had already begun to argue on political topics. So, in his speech in defense of a certain Sextus Roscius, the speaker alluded to the overly despotic dictatorship of Sulla, which caused him many problems. In addition, even in the early stages, the rhetor was surrounded by many enemies and opponents. Cicero won this case, outplaying his opponents in all positions, thanks to which he was talked about among the people. Of course, this could not but please the ill-wishers, who considered him "an upstart from the provinces." Therefore, Cicero was deliberately sent as an envoy to Sicily, where he would have to fight the Sicilian mafia.

Cicero dreamed of becoming a court orator and received an excellent education

Rapid takeoff

Cicero accepted the formidable challenge of his rivals. Then the arbitrariness of the governor Gaius Verres reigned in Sicily, who, moreover, was closely associated with the Sicilian mafia. Soon, Mark was faced with a difficult dilemma: either risk everything, including his life, and engage in polemics with Guy and the mafia, or calmly let them get away with everything. And the young speaker chose the first. There seemed to be no chance, because Verres had powerful allies, but the accuser did not. But to everyone's surprise, three speeches were enough for Cicero to outplay his opponent Gaius Verres. The arguments that Mark Tullius was guided by were so indisputable that no one dared to defend the accused - Quintus Hortensius himself, one of the outstanding orators of ancient Rome, abandoned this idea.

Cicero became Consul of Ancient Rome in 63 BC

As a result, Guy Verres went into exile, and Cicero returned in triumph to Rome, where new adventures awaited. In the eternal city, the orator took an active part in the Roman Senate and had every chance of becoming a consul. Then, in order to assume the powers of the head of state, it was required to win elections. And he finally succeeded in 63 BC. Immediately after taking office, Mark actively engaged in reforms. But one of the losers in the elections, and this loser was called Lucius Sergius Catiline, was already beginning to weave conspiracies and intrigues behind Cicero's back.

Fighting Catiline

And weapons in order to seize power in Rome and then kill Cicero. In some cities, uprisings had already begun, plans to kill the consul were constantly frustrated: Mark was already aware of the plans in advance. Finally, when Cicero was holding one of the meetings in the circle of Roman senators, Catiline entered the hall and sat down directly in front of his opponent. The orator, seeing the enemy, discarded the summary of his speech and delivered his first accusatory speech. The "first speech against Catiline" did not contain concrete and indisputable evidence. The main argument, according to Cicero, was that Catiline had a criminal and immoral character. “Otempora, omores!” exclaimed Cicero, which translates as “O times, o morals!”. Few people know that this aphorism takes its roots precisely from the first speech against Catiline. And when Mark Tullius angrily crushed Catiline, many senators sat back from the exposed conspirator.

"O times, o manners!" - aphorism from the first speech of Cicero against Catiline

And here Cicero was able to defeat Catiline. After delivering the first speech, he was forced to leave Rome. But in his residence, Mark's opponent continued to create intrigues, sending letters and instructions to his allies and proclaiming himself consul. Then Cicero delivered several more speeches, demanding the immediate execution of the escaped Catiline and his associates. Surprisingly, the request was fulfilled without doubt and judicial investigation. This precedent is unique because the letter of the law was very strong in ancient Rome. Roman law did not allow a person to be executed immediately without any trial. And it turns out that Cicero neglected the laws of Rome. However, he managed to get rid of the enemy. It would seem that everything should have ended there, but everything was just beginning.

Exile and return of the orator

Many were very unhappy with the way Cicero dealt with Catiline. Soon a law was passed that condemned an official to death if it allowed the execution of a Roman citizen without trial or investigation. Accordingly, Mark was threatened with falling under this law, and he had to leave the eternal city for a long time. Soon, thanks to the authority and help of his friends, Cicero returned back, but he distanced himself from political activity and began working on philosophical and literary works, combining his passion with advocacy. Mark Tullius also had a chance to visit governors in Cilicia, in the province of southern Turkey, where he successfully performed his duties. But soon a civil war broke out: in the battle for power, the forces of Caesar and Pompey clashed. Both wanted to see Mark in their camp, but in the end he joined the latter. Then he went over to, who later became the dictator of the Roman state. This was contrary to the political view of the speaker: Cicero strongly defended the republican form of government.

Cicero strongly defended the republican form of government

Fight with Mark Antony

In 44 BC, Mark Tullius Cicero delighted. From that moment on, he tried to restore the republican structure of Rome. But another Mark, this time Antony, sincerely hated the orator and came into conflict with the senate. The cycle of speeches "Philippis against Mark Antony" reminded of the power of Cicero.

He called his speeches in imitation of another ancient Greek orator, Demosthenes, who, in turn, denounced the Macedonian king Philip. Cicero, using all his eloquence, presented Mark Antony with many accusations, predicted him the same sad fate that overtook Julius Caesar. According to Cicero, Antony was much more dangerous to the Roman state than Catiline. In total, the orator read fourteen speeches against the sworn enemy. But Mark did not appreciate the talent of a political opponent and ordered to kill him.

Doom

Cicero decided to flee to Greece in order to escape from the sent assassins. But he didn't have time to escape. His slaves carried the speaker on a palanquin. And as soon as Mark Tullius leaned out of this palanquin, his head immediately flew off his shoulders from the centurion's sword. The severed upper limbs and head of Antony, as a sign of intimidation and a demonstration of his strength, were placed on the podium of the senate.

Anyone who watches one of the most popular series "Game of Thrones", which claims to be just the best collection of political intrigues and conspiracies on television, would surely call Cicero a very skilled player of thrones. Cicero is remembered as one of the geniuses and examples of oratory. He outmaneuvered all, with the exception of Mark Antony, who was later defeated by Octavian Augustus, his enemies, who wished him dead. And many of his accusatory and defensive speeches have survived to this day.

lat. Marcus Tullius Cicerō

ancient Roman politician, orator and philosopher

106 - 43 BC e.

short biography

- an outstanding ancient Roman orator, politician, philosopher, writer. His family belonged to the class of horsemen. Born in 106 BC. e., January 3, in the town of Arpinum. So that his sons could get a decent education, their father moved them to Rome when Cicero was 15. The natural talent for eloquence and diligent studies were not in vain: Cicero's oratorical skills did not go unnoticed.

His first public performance took place in 81 or 80 BC. e. and was dedicated to one of the favorites of the dictator Sulla. This could be followed by persecution, so Cicero moved to Athens, where he paid special attention to the study of rhetoric and philosophy. When Sulla died, Cicero returned to Rome, began to act as a defender at trials. In 75 BC. e. he was elected quaestor and sent to Sicily. Being an honest and fair official, he won great prestige among the local population, but this practically did not affect his reputation in Rome.

Cicero became a famous person in 70 BC. e. after participating in a high-profile trial, the so-called. Verres case. Despite all the tricks of his opponents, Cicero brilliantly coped with his mission, and thanks to his speeches, Verres, accused of extortion, had to leave the city. In 69 BC. e. Cicero was elected aedile, after another 3 years - praetor. The first speech of a purely political content belongs to this period. In it, he came out with the support of the law of one of the people's tribunes, who wanted Pompey to receive emergency powers in the war with Mithridates.

Another milestone in the political biography of Cicero was his election in 63 BC. e. consul. His opponent in the elections was Catiline, who was set up for revolutionary changes and, in many respects, therefore, lost. While in this position, Cicero opposed a bill that proposed distributing land to the poorest citizens and creating a special commission for this purpose. To win the election of 62 BC. Catiline conceived a plot that was successfully uncovered by Cicero. His four speeches in the Senate against a rival are considered a model of the art of eloquence. Catiline fled, and the other conspirators were executed. The influence of Cicero, his fame at that time reached its climax, he was called the father of the fatherland, but at the same time, according to Plutarch, his penchant for self-praise, the constant recall of merits in revealing the Catiline conspiracy aroused in many citizens hostility towards him and even hatred.

During the so-called. the first triumvirate, Cicero did not succumb to the temptation to take the side of the allies and remained faithful to the republican ideals. One of his opponents, the tribune Clodius, achieved that in 58 BC. e., in April, Cicero went into voluntary exile, his house was burned, and his property was confiscated. At this time, he repeatedly had thoughts of suicide, but soon Pompey ensured that Cicero was returned from exile.

Returning home, Cicero did not actively participate in political life, preferring literature and advocacy. In 55 BC. e. his dialogue “On the Speaker” appears, a year later he begins to work on the work “On the State”. During the civil war, the orator tried to act as a conciliator between Caesar and Pompey, but he considered the coming of either of them to power to be a deplorable outcome for the state. Having taken the side of Pompey, after the battle of Forsal (48 BC), he did not command his army and moved to Brundisium, where he met with Caesar. Despite the fact that he forgave him, Cicero, not being ready to put up with the dictatorship, delved into writings and translations, and this time turned out to be the most eventful in his creative biography.

In 44 BC. e., after Caesar was killed, Cicero made an attempt to return to big politics, believing that the state still had a chance to return the republic. In the confrontation between Mark Antony and Caesar's heir Octavian, Cicero took the side of the second, seeing him as an easier object for influence. The 14 speeches delivered against Anthony went down in history as the Philippics. After Octavian came to power, Antony managed to include Cicero in the lists of enemies of the people, and on December 7, 43 BC. e. he was killed near Caieta.

The creative legacy of the orator has survived to this day in the form of 58 speeches of judicial and political content, 19 treatises on politics and rhetoric, philosophy, as well as more than 800 letters. All his writings are a valuable source of information about several dramatic pages in the history of Rome.

Biography from Wikipedia

Mark Tullius Cicero(lat. Marcus Tullius Cicerō; January 3, 106 BC, Arpinum - December 7, 43 BC, Formia) - an ancient Roman politician, orator and philosopher. Being from an ignorant family, he made a brilliant career thanks to his oratorical talent: he entered the Senate no later than 73 BC. e. and became consul in 63 BC. e. Played a key role in uncovering and defeating the Catiline conspiracy. Later, in the conditions of civil wars, he remained one of the most prominent and most consistent supporters of the preservation of the republican system. He was executed by members of the second triumvirate, who aspired to unlimited power.

Cicero left an extensive literary heritage, a significant part of which has survived to this day. Already in antiquity, his works gained a reputation as a reference in terms of style, and now they are the most important source of information about all aspects of life in Rome in the 1st century BC. e. Numerous letters of Cicero became the basis for European epistolary culture; his speeches, especially catilinaria, are among the most outstanding examples of the genre. The philosophical treatises of Cicero are a unique exposition of the whole of ancient Greek philosophy, intended for Latin-speaking readers, and in this sense they played an important role in the history of ancient Roman culture.

Origin

Marcus Tullius Cicero was the eldest son of a Roman horseman of the same name, who was prevented by poor health from making a career, and his wife Helvia - "a woman of good birth and an impeccable life." His brother was Quintus, with whom Mark Tullius maintained a close relationship throughout his life, his cousin was Lucius Tullius Cicero, who accompanied his cousin on his journey to the East in 79 BC. e.

The Tullian family belonged to the aristocracy of Arpinus, a small city in the Volsci lands in the south of Latium, whose inhabitants had Roman citizenship since 188 BC. e. Gaius Marius, who was in property with Tullia, was also from here: Cicero's grandfather was married to Gratidia, whose brother married his sister Maria. Thus, Gaius' nephew Mark Marius Gratidian was Cicero's cousin, and Lucius Sergius Catiline was married to Cicero's great-aunt Gratidia.

It is not known since when the Tullii wore the cognomen. Cicero (cicero). Plutarch claims that this generic name comes from the word "chickpeas" and that Cicero's friends at the time when he was just starting his career advised him to replace this name with something more harmonious; Marcus Tullius rejected this advice, stating that he would make his cognomen ring louder than names Skaurus and Catulus.

early years

When the future speaker was 15 years old (91 BC), his father, who dreamed of a political career for his sons, moved with his family to Rome to give the boys a good education.

Wanting to become a court orator, young Mark studied the work of Greek poets, was interested in Greek literature, studied eloquence with the famous orators Mark Antony and Lucius Licinius Crassus, and also listened to Publius Sulpicius who spoke at the forum. The orator needed to know Roman law, and Cicero studied it with a prominent lawyer of that time, Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex. Being fluent in Greek, Cicero became acquainted with Greek philosophy through closeness with the Epicurean Phaedrus of Athens, the Stoic Diodorus Cronus, and the head of the new academic school, Philo. From the latter, Mark Tullius also studied dialectics - the art of arguing and argumentation.

During the outbreak of the Allied War, Cicero served in the army of Lucius Cornelius Sulla. In 89 BC. e. he witnessed the sign that preceded the victory of Sulla at Nola, and the meeting of the consul Gnaeus Pompey Strabo with Mars Vettius Scato. Then, in the face of hostility between the Marian and Sullan parties, Cicero "turned to a quiet and contemplative life", studying philosophy, rhetoric and law. This continued until the final victory of the Sullans in 82 BC. e.; while Cicero himself claimed later that he was on the side of Sulla.

The beginning of a speaker's career

The first surviving speech of Cicero, created in 81 BC. e., "In Defense of Quinctius", the purpose of which was the return of illegally seized property, brought the speaker his first success.

The speaker achieved even greater success with his speech “In Defense of Roscius”, in which he was forced to talk about the state of affairs in the state, where, in his words, “forgotten not only to forgive misdemeanors, but also to investigate crimes.” This difficult case of a modest native of the province of Rostia, unjustly accused by his relatives of the murder of his own father, was in fact a lawsuit between representatives of the ancient Roman families that had lost their influence under the Sullan regime, and the rootless henchmen of the dictator. Cicero personally visited Ameria and investigated the circumstances of the crime on the spot, after which he asked the court for 108 days to prepare the process.

Already in the process, Roscius Cicero showed himself to be a talented student of the Greeks and the famous rhetorician Apollonius Molon, from whom the young orator was educated in Rome. Cicero's speech was built according to all the rules of oratory - with complaints about the youth and inexperience of the defender, exhortation of the judges, direct speeches on behalf of the accused, as well as a refutation of the arguments of the prosecution. In debunking the allegations of the accuser Gaius Erucius, who was trying to prove that Roscius was a parricide, Cicero resorted to the Greek art of etopea, based on the characteristics of the accused, who could not have committed such a terrible act:

Sextus Roscius killed his father. “What kind of person is he? Spoiled youth trained by scoundrels? - "Yes, he is forty years old." - "Then he was, of course, prompted to this crime by extravagance, huge debts and indomitable passions." Erucius acquitted him on the charge of extravagance, saying that he had scarcely been at least one feast. He never had debts. As for passions, what passions can a person have who, as the accuser himself declared, has always lived in the countryside, doing agriculture? After all, such a life is very far from passions and teaches the consciousness of duty.

Cicero. In Defense of Sextus Roscius of Ameria, XIV, 39.

The importance of the Roscius case lay in the fact that, according to Cicero, "after a long break" for the first time there was a "trial for the murder, and meanwhile during this time the most heinous and monstrous murders were committed." So the defender hinted at the events of the civil war of 83-82. BC e. and Sullan repression directed against all those who disagree with the dictatorial regime. The father of the accused, a very rich man at that time, his distant relatives, having resorted to the help of the influential favorite of Sulla Cornelius Chrysogonus, tried to put it on the proscription lists after the murder, and to distribute the property, having sold it for nothing, to distribute among themselves. The execution of the plans of the “dishonest insolent”, as Cicero calls them, was hindered by the legitimate heir, whom they tried to accuse of parricide. That is why in this case the defender does not so much speak about the innocence of the accused (it is obvious to everyone), but rather exposes the greed of criminals who profit from the death of fellow citizens, and those who use their connections to cover up crimes. Cicero addresses the judges not with flattery, but with the demand “it is possible to punish the atrocities more severely, it is possible to more boldly rebuff the most impudent people”: “If you do not show what your views are in this court case, then greed, crime and insolence can reach the point that not only secretly, but even here in the forum, at your feet, judges, right between the pews, murders will take place.

The process was won, and the orator gained great popularity among the people due to his opposition to the local aristocracy. But, fearing the revenge of Sulla, Cicero went to Athens and the island of Rhodes for two years, allegedly due to the need for a deeper study of philosophy and oratory. There he again studied with Molon, who later had a strong influence on the style of Cicero - from that time on, the orator began to adhere to the "middle" style of eloquence, which combined a number of elements of Asian and moderate Attic styles.

In 78 BC. e., shortly after the death of Sulla, Cicero returned to Rome. Here he married Terence, who belonged to a noble family (this marriage brought him a dowry of 120 thousand drachmas), and continued judicial oratory practice.

Start of political activity

In 75 BC. e. Cicero was elected quaestor and was assigned to Sicily, where he supervised the export of grain during a shortage of bread in Rome. With his justice and honesty, he earned the respect of the Sicilians, but in Rome his successes were practically not noticed. Plutarch describes his return to the capital as follows:

In Campania he met a prominent Roman, whom he considered his friend, and Cicero, convinced that Rome was full of the glory of his name and deeds, asked how the citizens judged his actions. “Wait a minute, Cicero, where have you been lately?” - he heard in response, and immediately completely lost heart, for he realized that the rumor about him was lost in the city, as if sunk into the boundless sea, without adding anything to his former fame.

Plutarch. Cicero, 6..

Questura meant for Mark Tullius entry into the senatorial class. By October 14, 73 BC. e. refers to his very first mention as a senator. In subsequent years, Cicero took part in a number of trials, achieved recognition in the Senate, and in 70 BC. e. without much difficulty he took the post of aedile, which was the next step in his career after the questura.

In August 70 B.C. e. Cicero delivered a series of speeches against the propraetor of Sicily, a former supporter of Sulla, Gaius Licinius Verres, who, during his three years of governorship (73 - 71 BC), plundered the province and executed many of its inhabitants. The matter was complicated by the fact that Cicero's opponent supported by many influential nobles, including both consuls of the following year (Hortensius, a famous orator who agreed to act as defender at the trial, and Verres' friend Quintus Metellus), as well as the chairman of the court, praetor Marcus Metellus.

Guy Verres said more than once ... that behind him is an influential person, relying on whom he can plunder the province, and he collects money not only for himself; that he distributed the income from his three-year praetorship in Sicily in the following way: he will be very pleased if he manages to turn the income of the first year to his own advantage; the income of the second year he will give to his patrons and protectors; the revenues of the third year, the most profitable and promising the greatest profits, he will fully reserve for the judges.

Cicero. v. Guy Verres (first session), XIV, 40..

But Cicero nevertheless took up the case against corruption at all levels of government and won. His speeches written for this trial were of great political importance, since in essence Cicero opposed the senatorial oligarchy and won a triumphal victory over it: the orator's arguments in favor of Verres's guilt turned out to be so indisputable that the famous Hortensius refused to defend the defendant. Verres was forced to pay a heavy fine of 40 million sesterces and retire into exile.

Meanwhile, the political career of Cicero continued: he was elected praetor for 66 BC. e., and received the most votes, and in the course of the administration of this position he gained a reputation as a skillful and impeccably honest judge. At the same time, he continued to engage in advocacy, and also delivered a speech “On the appointment of Gnaeus Pompey as a commander”, in which he supported the bill of Gaius Manilius on granting Gnaeus Pompey the Great unlimited powers in the fight against the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator. As a result, Pompey received extraordinary power in the war, and the interests of the Roman horsemanship and senators in the East were protected.

Consulate and conspiracy of Catiline

In 63 BC. e. Cicero was elected to the position of consul, winning a landslide victory in the elections - even before the final count of votes. His colleague was Gaius Anthony Hybrid associated with the aristocratic camp.

At the beginning of his consulship, Cicero had to deal with the agrarian law proposed by the tribune of the people, Servilius Rullus. The bill provided for the distribution of land to the poorest citizens and the establishment for this purpose of a special commission with serious powers. Cicero opposed this initiative with three speeches; as a result, the law was not passed.

One of the losing candidates for consulship in 63 B.C. e. Lucius Sergius Catiline also put forward his candidacy for the elections of 62 years. Assuming failure this time as well, he began in advance to prepare a conspiracy to seize power, which Cicero managed to uncover. Already the first of his four speeches against Catiline, considered examples of oratory, Cicero forced Lucius Sergius to flee from Rome to Etruria. In the subsequent meeting of the Senate, which he led, it was decided to arrest and execute without trial those conspirators (Lentulus, Cethegus, Statilius, Gabinius and Ceparius) who remained in Rome, since they posed too great a threat to the state and the usual measures in such cases - house arrest or exile - would not be effective enough. Julius Caesar, who was present at the meeting, opposed the execution, but Cato, with his speech, not only denouncing the guilt of the conspirators, but also listing the suspicions that fell on Caesar himself, convinced the senators of the need for a death sentence. The condemned were taken to prison the same day and strangled there.

During this period, the fame and influence of Cicero reached their peak; praising his resolute actions, Cato called him the "father of the fatherland". But at the same time Plutarch writes:

Many were imbued with hostility and even hatred towards him - not for any bad deed, but only because he endlessly praised himself. Neither the senate, nor the people, nor the judges managed to gather and disperse without hearing once again the old song about Catiline ... he flooded his books and writings with boasts, and his speeches, always so harmonious and charming, became torment for the listeners.

Plutarch. Cicero, 24..

Exile

In 60 BC. e. Caesar, Pompey and Crassus joined forces to seize power, forming the First Triumvirate. Recognizing the talents and popularity of Cicero, they made several attempts to win him over to their side. Cicero, after hesitating, refused, preferring to remain loyal to the Senate and the ideals of the Republic. But this left him open to the attacks of opponents, among whom was the tribune of the people Clodius, who had taken a dislike to Cicero since the orator testified against him at the trial.

Clodius sought the adoption of a law that would condemn to exile an official who executed a Roman citizen without trial. The law was directed primarily against Cicero. Cicero turned to Pompey and other influential people for support, but did not receive it. At the same time, he himself writes that he refused the help of Caesar, who first offered him his friendship, then an embassy to Alexandria, then - the post of legate in his army in Gaul; the reason for the refusal was the unwillingness to flee from danger. According to Plutarch, Cicero himself asked Caesar for the place of legate, received it, and then refused it because of the feigned friendliness of Clodius.

Sources note the cowardly behavior of Cicero after the adoption of the law: he humbly asked the consul Piso and Pomeus for help, and the latter even threw himself at the feet. Dressed in poor and dirty clothes, he molested random passers-by on the streets of Rome, even those who did not know him at all. Finally, in April 58 B.C. e. Cicero still had to go into exile and leave Italy. After that, his property was confiscated and his houses were burned. The exile had an extremely depressing effect on Cicero: he even thought about suicide.

September 57 B.C. e. Pompey took a tougher stance towards Clodius; he drove the tribune from the forum and achieved the return of Cicero from exile with the help of Titus Annius Milo. The house and estates of Cicero were rebuilt at the expense of the treasury. Nevertheless, Mark Tullius found himself in a difficult position: he owed his return primarily to Pompey personally, and the power of the Senate was significantly weakened against the backdrop of open battles between the supporters of Milo and Clodius and the strengthening of the positions of the triumvirs. Cicero had to accept the latter's de facto patronage and make speeches in their support, while lamenting the state of the republic.

Gradually, Cicero withdrew from active political life and indulged in advocacy and literary activities. In 55, he wrote the dialogue "On the Orator", in 54 he began work on the essay "On the State".

Viceroyalty in Cilicia and civil war

In 51 B.C. e. Cicero was appointed governor of Cilicia by lot. He went to his province with great reluctance, and in letters to friends often wrote of his longing for Rome; nevertheless, he ruled successfully: he stopped the rebellion of the Cappadocians without resorting to weapons, and also defeated the bandit tribes of Aman, for which he received the title of "emperor".

In Rome, at the time of the return of Mark Tullius, the confrontation between Caesar and Pompey intensified. Cicero did not want to take sides for a long time (“I love Curio, I wish honors to Caesar, I am ready to die for Pompey, but the Republic is dearer to me than anything in the world!”) And he made a lot of efforts to reconcile opponents, as he understood that in the event of a civil war, the republican system will be doomed, regardless of who wins. "Out of victory will grow much evil, and above all a tyrant."

“He turned with advice to both - he sent letter after letter to Caesar, Pompey persuaded and begged at every opportunity, trying to soften mutual bitterness. But trouble was inevitable. In the end, without much desire, Cicero became a supporter of Pompey, following, according to him, honest people, like a bull for a herd.

Pompey instructed Mark Tullius to recruit troops in Campania along with the consuls, but the latter did not appear on the spot; disappointed in Pompey's leadership talent and shocked by his intention to leave Italy, Cicero left for his estate in Formia and decided to refuse to participate in the civil war. Caesar tried to win him over to his side: he sent "smart letters" to Cicero, and in the spring of 49 BC. e. even visited him. But Caesar's retinue shocked Cicero. When Caesar went with an army to Spain, Mark Tullius decided to join Pompey, although he saw that he was losing the war. He wrote to Atticus about this: "I never wanted to be a part of his victory, but I want to share his misfortune." In June 49, Cicero joined Pompey in Epirus.

Sources report that in the Pompeian camp, Cicero, always gloomy, mocked everyone, including the commander. After the battle of Pharsalus, when the defeated Pompey fled to Egypt, Cato offered Cicero as consular command of the army and fleet stationed in Dyrrhachia. He, completely disappointed, refused, and after a skirmish with Pompey the Younger and other military leaders who accused him of betrayal, he moved to Brundisium. Here he spent almost a year until Caesar returned from the Egyptian and Asian campaigns; then there was their meeting and reconciliation. "From then on, Caesar treated Cicero with unfailing respect and friendliness." Nevertheless, Cicero left politics, unable to come to terms with the dictatorship, and took up writing and translating philosophical treatises from Greek.

Opposition to Mark Antony and death

Assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC e. came as a complete surprise to Cicero and made him very happy: he decided that with the death of the dictator, the republic could be restored. But his hopes for a republican government did not come true. Brutus and Cassius were forced to leave Italy, and in Rome the positions of the Caesarian Mark Antony, who hated Cicero, sharply strengthened - largely due to the fact that eighteen years earlier he had achieved extrajudicial reprisals against his stepfather Lentulus, a supporter of Catiline.

For some time, Cicero planned to leave for Greece. He changed his mind and returned to Rome, having learned that Antony had expressed his willingness to cooperate with the Senate, but the very next day after his return (September 1, 44) there was an open conflict. On September 2, Cicero delivered a speech directed against Antony and called by the author "Philippic" by analogy with the speeches of Demosthenes against the strengthening of Philip of Macedon. In a response speech, Antony announced the involvement of Mark Tullius in the assassination of Caesar, in the massacre of the supporters of Catiline, in the murder of Clodius and provoking strife between Caesar and Pompey. After these events, Cicero began to fear for his life and retired to his estate in Campania, taking up the composition of the second Philippic, the treatises On Duties and On Friendship.

The second philippic was published at the end of November. Anthony left for Cisalpine Gaul, assigned to him as a province, and Cicero became the de facto head of the republic. He made an alliance against Antony with Decimus Junius Brutus, who refused to transfer Gaul to him, with both consuls (formerly Caesarians) and with Caesar's heir Octavian. Already on December 20, Cicero uttered the third and fourth philippics, where he compared Antony with Catiline and Spartacus.

Being confident in victory, Cicero could not foresee the alliance of Octavian with the already defeated Antony and Mark Aemilius Lepidus and the formation of the second triumvirate (in the autumn of 43 BC). The troops of the triumvirs occupied Rome, and Antony achieved the inclusion of Cicero's name in the proscription lists of "enemies of the people", which the triumvirs published immediately after the formation of the alliance.

Cicero tried to flee to Greece, but the assassins overtook him on December 7, 43 BC. e. near his villa in Formia. When Cicero noticed the killers chasing him, he ordered the slaves carrying him to put the palanquin on the ground, and then, sticking his head out from behind the curtain, put his neck under the centurion's sword. According to legend, Antony's wife Fulvia stuck pins into the tongue of the dead head, and then, as Plutarch says, “they ordered the head and hands to be placed on the oratory's dais, above the ship's prows, to the horror of the Romans, who thought they were seeing not the appearance of Cicero, but the image of the soul of Anthony ... ".

Views of Cicero

Philosophical views

Cicero is often denied the consistency as a philosopher, reducing his contribution only to a successful compilation of the conclusions of the Greek philosophical schools for the Roman reader. The reasons for this attitude are the general critical attitude towards Cicero, which spread in the historiography of the 19th century, and the self-deprecating statements of Mark Tullius himself, who denied the significance of his contribution to philosophical treatises (perhaps this was self-irony). A certain role was played by Cicero's intentional rejection of categorical judgments, caused by his acceptance of the teachings of skeptical philosophers. This manner was contrary to the strict style of philosophizing, the fashion for which has spread in philosophy since modern times.

Thanks to good preparation, Cicero was well acquainted with the main philosophical currents of his time. Cicero considered Plato the greatest philosopher of all time, the second after him - Aristotle. At the same time, he recognized the excessive abstraction of Plato's philosophy. Of the more modern philosophies, Marcus Tullius was closest to the Stoics, whose ethical teachings were in good agreement with the traditional Roman worldview. His attitude towards popular Epicureanism was generally negative. Nevertheless, he treated the founder of this doctrine well. Acquaintance with Greek philosophy was not limited to classical and new trends: Cicero was also familiar with the ideas of the pre-Socratics. However, it is admitted that not all quotations in his writings may indicate familiarity with the primary sources, since Cicero could borrow them from later review writings. The extent of Cicero's dependence on predecessors is unclear, as many potential sources have not survived. According to the most radical point of view, which recognized the lack of independence of the Roman author, the source for each work of Cicero was a single Greek treatise. VF Asmus believes that Cicero also has works written without major borrowings from Greek treatises, but because of this, errors, inaccuracies and contradictions often occurred in them.

Since Cicero did not strive to build a comprehensive philosophical concept, he finds it difficult to give a definitive answer to a number of key questions of being and cognition. In general, Cicero's views are characterized as moderate skepticism on major philosophical issues, with significant influence from Stoic ideas in ethics and political theory. At the same time, it is emphasized that the skepticism of the Roman author was not an end in itself, but was of a purely applied nature: comparing different points of view, he sought to get closer to the truth. GG Mayorov characterizes Cicero's philosophical platform as "naturalistic monism with some deviations towards Platonic idealism."

Important merits of Cicero are the adaptation of the ancient Greek philosophical heritage to the conditions of the ancient Roman mentality and, especially, the exposition of philosophy in Latin. Mark Tullius himself attributed the primacy in the creation of philosophical writings in Latin to Varro. Cicero contributed to the formation of Latin philosophical terminology by introducing a number of new terms into circulation (for example, definitio- definition, progressus- progress). Unlike Titus Lucretius Kara, who created the philosophical poem, he chose a more traditional, prosaic way of conveying philosophical knowledge. Despite numerous references to Plato's dialogues, the main form of Cicero's treatises was the exchange of long speeches, most characteristic of Aristotle's dialogues and only some of Plato's writings. The abundance of large texts with a complex structure corresponded to the rhetorical inclinations of Marcus Tullius and allowed him to fully realize his literary talents. The influence of the encyclopedic way of presentation, characteristic of all Roman scientific literature, also had an effect.

The skepticism adopted by Cicero, which recognized the existence of different points of view and allowed to borrow the conclusions of different philosophical schools, became the theoretical basis for political and, to a lesser extent, rhetorical treatises.

Political views. theory of law

Political and legal ideas of Cicero are considered a valuable contribution to the theory of state and law. At the same time, Cicero is one of the few political thinkers who have succeeded in practical political activity. Although the point of view of Cicero's duplicity is widespread in historiography, S. L. Utchenko believes that Cicero's treatises develop and provide theoretical justification for the same views that he always expressed in his public speeches - in particular, the slogans "consent of estates" used in speeches ( concordia ordinum) and "the consent of all the well-meaning" ( consensus bonorum omnium). Both slogans appear to have been coined by Cicero himself. Mark Tullius defended the idea of ​​the importance of studying philosophy for statesmen, and considered studying philosophy during a forced removal from politics an alternative to political activity.

Like all of Cicero's philosophy, his political ideas draw heavily on Greek thought. Nevertheless, the author considers, first of all, the Roman specifics of the state and constantly focuses on the experience of Roman history. Moreover, he sets himself a very clear task - to justify the special mission of the Roman Republic. Cicero seeks to oppose Rome to Greek policies, which is manifested, for example, in emphasizing, following Cato the Elder, the gradual formation of the Roman constitution, in contrast to the Greeks, whose policies received basic laws from one person (Solon in Athens, Lycurgus in Sparta, etc.). He also discusses the advantages of founding a city not on the usual Greek coast, but at some distance from the sea, and defends the advantages of the Roman elective monarchy over the succession of the title from the Spartan kings.

In the question of the origin of the state and law, Plato, Aristotle, the Stoic philosophers, as well as Panetius and Polybius, had the most important influence on Cicero. Cicero's views on the origin of the state changed over time - from the recognition of the importance of rhetoric in uniting primitive people against wild animals in early writings, to the subsequent adoption of Aristotle's point of view about the inherent desire of people to live together. Mark Tullius distinguishes several types of communities, and he recognizes the closest of them as the association of people within one civil community ( civitas). Cicero's famous definition of the state ( res publica) as "the property of the people" ( res populi) departs from the patterns accepted in Greek political thought:

The state is the property of the people, and the people are not any combination of people gathered together in any way, but a combination of many people, interconnected by agreement in matters of law and common interests (Cicero. On the State, I, XXV, 39).

original text(lat.)
Est igitur... res publica res populi, populus autem non omnis hominum coetus quo quo modo congregatus, sed coetus multitudinis iuris consensu et utilitatis communione sociatus.

Mark Tullius repeats the three-part classification of forms of government common in ancient times (in the Greek tradition - democracy, aristocracy, monarchy, in Cicero - civitas popularis, civitas optimatium, regnum), borrows the idea of ​​the gradual degeneration of all these forms into its opposite and, following its predecessors, recognizes the absence of the only correct form of the device from the three listed. He, again following Greek political thought, considers the ideal form of government to be a mixed constitution that combines the advantages of three “pure” forms, but does not have their shortcomings. At the same time, Cicero joins Polybius, who saw in the Roman Republic the embodiment of a mixed state system, and thereby refuses to follow Plato, who described a fictional ideal state. It is assumed that the refusal to create utopian projects and glorify foreign customs while idealizing one's own ancient history was well in line with the traditional Roman worldview. The Roman author goes further than Polybius and admits that the Roman state can exist forever. Cicero comes to the conclusion that the most important advantage of a mixed constitution is not just the stability of the state structure (such is the opinion of Polybius), but also the possibility of ensuring "great equality", which the three classical forms of government cannot offer. The shortcomings of the three "pure" forms, according to Polybius, come down to their instability, but for Cicero their equally important shortcoming is the inability to ensure justice.

In the fragmentary fifth book of the treatise On the State, Cicero develops the idea that the Roman Republic needed a leader who would be able to peacefully resolve the contradictions that had arisen. This idea is often seen as the ideological preparation of the principate, although it is noted that the system of power built by the first princeps Octavian Augustus did not correspond to the views of the staunch republican Cicero. However, one of the basic provisions of Cicero - the need for a supraclass leader who stands above the interests of individuals, political societies and social groups - was used by Octavian to justify his power. The political meaning that Cicero invested in the concept of a supra-class leader (Cicero called him in different terms - rector rei publicae, tutor et moderator rei publicae, princeps, and some differences between these designations are admitted) remains a subject of debate in historiography. Complicating the solution of this issue is the fragmentary preservation of the last two books of the treatise "On the State": only fragments have survived to this day in which the participants in the dialogue discuss the qualities that a rector, and his duties, but not his rights and powers. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, a version spread that in his work Cicero was preparing a theoretical justification for a form of government close to a constitutional monarchy. S. L. Utchenko joins the point of view of J. Vogt, who criticizes the monarchical interpretation of Cicero's words, and sees in the leader described by him an aristocrat acting within the framework of republican institutions. A similar point of view is held, for example, by P. Grimal, according to whom, Mark Tullius saw in the described leader not a full-fledged monarch, but, above all, a mediator in resolving disputes. It is not clear whether Cicero could have had in mind a specific person suitable for the role of an ideal ruler ( rector) - Gnaeus Pompey, himself, or his thoughts did not claim immediate practical implementation. G. Benario believes that Cicero's concept of an ideal ruler optionally complements the Roman mixed constitution and is not an integral part of it, although this point of view is not always shared.

In his political theory, Cicero proceeds from the well-known in ancient times notion of the cycles of life and death of individual states. The question of the predestination of the decline of states remained unresolved, but ancient thinkers saw the two most obvious answers to this question - either states are doomed to perish, or a state with ideal laws can exist forever. Cicero's skeptical attitude towards fate and supernatural predestination led him to search for ideal laws.

In his treatise On the Laws, Cicero develops the theory of natural law ( ius naturale in a broad sense, ratio naturale), according to which there is a "natural law" common to people and gods. With its help, people distinguish lawlessness from right and evil from good. He defines this law (in a broad sense) as “a higher mind inherent in nature, telling us to do what we should do, and forbidding the opposite” ( lex est ratio summa, insita in natura, quae iubet ea quae facienda sunt, prohibetque contraria). The origin of human laws, which he distinguishes from natural law, the Roman author considers the result of a social contract. According to Cicero, the imperfection of people leads to the fact that they often adopt imperfect and unjust laws. There are three main views on the relationship between natural and human laws in Cicero. The first and most traditional approach assumes that the connections between them are the same as between the ideas of Plato and their earthly reflections (things): the laws of people can only approach the ideal laws of nature. The second approach considers the ideas expressed by Cicero as the development of abstract laws of nature. The third approach, proposed in the 1980s by K. Girardet, asserts the identity of both types of laws. Following the early Roman jurists, Cicero singles out and ius gentium(the law of peoples), which he places above ius civile(civil law, that is, the rights of individual communities, including Rome)

By the 1st century BC. e. The development of Roman law led to the accumulation of numerous, in no way systematized sources of law. Due to the difficulty of studying law, Cicero annoyed, even some judicial orators do not understand legal matters. He saw the solution to this problem as the development of an introduction to law using a philosophical apparatus for classifying the basic principles of civil law, which would make it possible to streamline disparate definitions and turn law into art. E. M. Shtaerman suggests that by the time of Cicero, some foundations of the theory of law had already appeared in the Roman Republic, but only hints of their existence have survived to this day. Book III of the treatise "On the Laws" discusses some of the basic provisions of the structure of the Roman magistracies, which K. Case compares with the constitutions of modern states, while noting the uniqueness of such a set in ancient times.

Noticing that justice is not very common on Earth, Cicero describes the "dream of Scipio" in book VI of the treatise "On the State", putting forward the idea of ​​a posthumous reward for a just life. Mark Tullius warned against following the letter of the law too closely, as this could lead to injustice. Based on his conclusions about natural law and justice, Cicero also demands fair treatment of slaves, suggesting that they be treated in the same way as wage workers.

Views on rhetoric, literature and history

Cicero wrote several rhetorical works in which he spoke on various issues of the theory and practice of public speaking. He interpreted rhetoric very broadly, which was caused by the ancient tradition of reading written compositions aloud.

The main provisions of Cicero's views on rhetoric are contained in the treatises "On the Orator" (mostly the ideas of Cicero himself are voiced by Lucius Crassus), "Orator", private issues are considered in "Topeka", "On the Construction of Speech", "Brutus" and the early work "On finding material. The reason why Marcus Tullius often expressed his own views on the qualities of an ideal orator was his dissatisfaction with the current state of rhetorical education, focused on highly specialized tasks. Although the ideal described by Cicero, in accordance with the philosophy of Plato, was unattainable, the Roman author considered the task of beginning orators to approach this model.

According to Cicero, the ideal speaker should be a versatile educated person. In addition to the theory of rhetoric, he is required to know the basics of philosophy, civil law, and history. This was due to the critical attitude of the Roman author to the pompous but empty performances that spread in his era. He also demands from the speaker a sincere experience of the subject of his speech and a good sense of tact: “How inappropriate it would be, speaking of gutters<…>, use pompous words and commonplaces, and speak low and simply about the greatness of the Roman people! Cicero considers various rhetorical figures, but advises against overusing them. The Roman author writes about the need for consistency to form a holistic color of each performance. He also knows that over time, magnificent speeches get bored, but he does not delve into the search for the causes of this phenomenon. Cicero believes that successfully and moderately used archaic words give dignity to speech. At the same time, he considers it possible to form neologisms from roots that are understandable to listeners. Of the main expressive means, he considers metaphor and various comparisons to be the most important, although he warns that one should not get carried away with them, and warns against choosing too unnatural metaphors. Following the textbooks of rhetoric, he advised to practice reasoning and offered to choose philosophical topics for them. Cicero paid much attention to questions of pronunciation. As an exemplary reprimand, he recommends paying attention to the speech of elderly Roman women, which was distinguished by its special purity and sophistication. Mark Tullius requires avoiding dissonant combinations of sounds and carefully observing the rhythm of speech. In his later works, he actively argues with the atticists, who were gaining popularity, who chose emphasized minimalism as a model in matters of stylistic finishing of speeches.

Cicero also expresses his thoughts on the structure of public speaking. For judicial and political speeches, he offers different features of the structure. For all types of speeches, however, he recommends using calm and moderate introductions without pathos and jokes, although he himself sometimes deviates from this rule (for example, in the first speech against Catiline). At the same time, in the introduction, according to Cicero, one should especially carefully monitor the rhythm of speech. The subsequent parts of the speech have their own laws. The most emotional part of the speech, Cicero suggests making a conclusion ( peroratio).

In his speech for Archius, Cicero justifies the benefits of literature for both the writer and the reader. For the Roman author, the social benefit of literature is extremely important (in particular, the glorification of the deeds of great people of the past and present), because of which he speaks of the high social prestige of writers and poets. Separately, Cicero spoke about the role of writing and poetic gifts. In his opinion, the existing talent needs to be developed, and relying only on natural abilities is unacceptable. The views of the Roman author on poetry were very conservative: he supported the old traditions of versification, dating back to Ennius, and criticized the modernist poets (one of these, in the words of Cicero, "idle" poets was Catullus). He reproached the latter for the fact that poetry became their goal, and not a means of glorifying their homeland and educating fellow citizens, criticized their choice of plots cut off from life and attacked their artificially complicated lyrics. Cicero most highly valued epic poetry, a little lower he put tragedy, and of the authors he especially appreciated Ennius and the masters of psychologism, whom he was ready to forgive even the flaws of style. Opposite opinions exist about the role of Cicero in the history of Latin poetry.

Cicero on the principles by which the historian should be guided

“Who does not know that the first law of history is not to allow lies under any pretext; then - in no case be afraid of the truth; not allow a shadow of predilection or a shadow of malice"

Cicero also repeatedly spoke out on the issue of the principles of describing history, which he considered a kind of oratory. Mark Tullius called for writing historical writings primarily about recent events, without delving into antiquity valued by annalistic historians. Cicero demanded from the historian not to be limited to a simple enumeration of acts, considering it necessary to describe the intentions of the actors, to cover in detail the features of the development of events and to consider their consequences. He urged historians not to abuse the rhetorical design of writings and believed that the style of historical writings should be calm. At the same time, S. L. Utchenko notes, Cicero himself hardly followed his own recommendations in the history of his consulate (this work has not been preserved), and therefore considers the requirements he voiced for the historian to be only a tribute to tradition.

Religious views

Consideration of various issues related to religion, Cicero devoted three treatises - "On the nature of the gods", "On divination" (in other translations - "On divination", "On divination") and "On fate". The first work was written under the strong influence of the teachings of the Stoic Posidonius, although the role of academic philosophers is also noticeable. Its dialogical structure determines the absence of clear conclusions: the participants in the dialogue exchange opinions, but Cicero does not indicate his own point of view. According to a slightly different scheme, the treatise "On Divination" is constructed. Unlike other philosophical writings, Cicero portrays himself as an active participant in the dialogue and expresses a number of categorical thoughts on the topic under consideration. This allows us to establish his own views, which, however, are under the influence of Cletomach, expounding the teachings of Carneades, and Panetius. In this essay, he departs from the traditional closeness to Stoic philosophy, sharply criticizing their doctrine of fate and predictions. Cicero also criticizes the ethical function of religion: he does not consider fear of supernatural retribution an effective motivator. When considering the problem of the origin of evil (theodicy), which appeared despite the good intentions of the creator gods, Cicero criticized the Stoic views on this issue. However, he does not try to refute the theoretical foundations of the teachings of the Stoics, but only appealed to historical examples when noble people die, and bad people rule. From this he concluded that the gods were indifferent to both good and evil people. He considered the stoic argument about reason as a tool for distinguishing good from evil untenable, recognizing the correctness of Aristotle's idea of ​​the "neutrality" of reason and pointing to the regular use of reason by a person to the detriment of himself and other people. Finally, with the help of sophisms and tricks drawn from lawyer practice, Cicero brings the Stoic point of view to the point of absurdity, proving that Providence endowed man with reason not at all with good, but with evil intentions.

In his writings, Cicero distinguished organized religion ( religion) from superstition ( superstitio). The distinction between the two concepts, however, is not clearly drawn by Cicero. In his treatise On the Nature of the Gods, Cicero defined religion. In the first book of this work, he writes that religion “consists in the pious worship of the gods” (lat. religionem, quae deorum cultu pio continetur), in the second he casually throws a clarification: “[in relation to] religion, that is, the worship of the gods” (lat. religione, id est cultu deorum). The definition of Cicero is not new and goes back to the concept of “worship of the gods” used by Homer and Hesiod (ancient Greek τιμή θεῶν). He tries to explain the difference between the two terms through the "folk etymologies" of both words, emphasizing the initially positive connotation of the meaning of the word "religion" and the negative connotation of "superstition".

Cicero criticized popular superstitions, but defended religious cults closely related to them. At the same time, notes E. A. Berkova, the defense of organized religion by the Roman author partly contradicts his own reasoning. Cicero believes that divination, very popular in ancient times, is based on chance and therefore cannot serve as proof of the existence of gods. He compares fortunetellers with doctors: although they all base their knowledge on experience, the doctor proceeds from reasonable grounds in his actions, and the fortuneteller cannot explain the connection between the appearance of the entrails of sacrificial animals and future events. Mark Tullius denies the supernatural essence of various miracles, believing that they all obey the laws of nature ( rationes naturales). Based on his experience as a member of the priestly college of augurs, he knows about the manipulation of predictions and proves that many stories that allegedly confirm the validity of divination were invented based on the ignorance of listeners. In his opinion, the prophecies of the oracles popular in the ancient era either directly deceive the petitioners, or are deliberately vague. Mark Tullius also thought about the question of whether it would not be better to abandon faith in the gods if all superstitions disappear with them, although he does not develop this idea further. Despite his criticisms of prejudice, Cicero objected to the attempts of the Epicurean philosophers to get rid of all superstitions, justifying this with the need for public worship. He justified the need to preserve an organized religion not with logical arguments, but with appeals to the interests of the state.

Cicero's views on the existence of the gods are less obvious, since the final book of the essay "On the Nature of the Gods", in which the results of the reasoning were supposed to be summed up, has not been completely preserved. As a result, various researchers do not agree on which of the participants in the dialogue expressed the point of view of Marcus Tullius himself. E. A. Berkova considers the views of Cicero close to those of the academic philosopher Gaius Aurelius Cotta, whose speech makes up most of the first book of the treatise, and G. G. Maiorov ascribes the role of the main spokesman for the author’s views to Lucilius Balbu, who voiced the views of the Stoics in the second book essays. Balbus gives a number of arguments about the existence of gods and considers the idea of ​​the rationality of the world order. Belief in the gods, according to Cicero, does not need proof, since it is a special type of belief. According to the conclusion of G. G. Mayorov, Cicero "honors not so much the gods themselves as the Roman religion." In his opinion, Cicero doubted the existence of the gods, but was afraid to voice his thoughts openly because of the memory of the fate of Protagoras, who was expelled from Athens for publishing a treatise in which the philosopher doubted the existence of the gods. A different opinion is shared by P. Grimal, who assumes Cicero's completely sincere belief in supernatural forces and denies attempts to present Cicero as a duplicitous manipulator.

literary heritage

Speeches

Among researchers there is no consensus on the issue of editing speeches by Cicero, Tyro or Atticus before publication. L. Wilkinson believes that the published texts of speeches very rarely coincided verbatim with oral speeches, and only speakers with a phenomenal memory (for example, Hortensius) could perfectly reproduce pre-prepared speeches. It is known from Quintilian's report that Cicero recited by heart only carefully worked out introductions to speeches, as well as some key fragments of the speech. The recordings of his speeches that have survived to this day were shortened by Tiron before publication. L. Wilkinson recognizes the existence of noticeable differences between actually delivered speeches and specially designed published versions, even if Cicero's speech was recorded by a stenographer, and also points out that the practice of ancient Roman legal proceedings did not allow speeches to be delivered in the form in which they were preserved. I. M. Tronsky believes that Cicero's speeches were subjected to rather strong literary processing before publication. As a particularly striking example, he cites the message of Dio Cassius, as if Titus Annius Milo, while in exile in Massilia (modern Marseilles), read a speech published by Cicero in his defense and exclaimed that if the orator made this particular version of the speech, then he, Milo, you wouldn't have to eat Massilian fish right now. M. E. Grabar-Passek insists that the situation with Milo's speech was unique due to the intimidation of Cicero during the speech. However, she acknowledges some editing of speeches before publication. I.P. Strelnikova believes that the surviving versions of Cicero's speeches differed slightly from those actually spoken. Some of the published speeches (the last speeches against Verres and the second philippic) were not actually delivered at all and circulated only in written form. Speech to the Senate after returning from exile ( Post reditum in senatu) was first written and then spoken. Although most of the speeches were first delivered and then edited and published, the recorded versions retain the hallmarks of oral speech because they were intended to be read aloud. J. Powell compares recorded speeches with scripts that need to be voiced.

Rhetorical treatises

• About the speaker;
• Brutus, or About Famous Orators;
• Speaker.

Philosophical treatises

Opera omnia, 1566

Currently, 19 treatises of Cicero are known, devoted to questions of philosophy and politics, most of which are written in the form of fictional dialogues. They are valuable because they expound, in detail and without distortion, the teachings of the leading philosophical schools of that time - the Stoics, Academicians and Epicureans - because of which the Romans considered Cicero their first teacher of philosophy.

The list of treatises in chronological order is as follows:

• De re publica (About the state) - created in 54 - 51 years. BC e. and partially preserved. Fragment Dream of Scipio preserved with a commentary by Macrobius and was known in the Middle Ages.
• De legibus (About laws). Written in the form of a dialogue between Cicero himself, his brother Quintus and Atticus, and is about half preserved. Date of creation - the end of the 50s BC. e.
• Paradoxa Stoicorum (Stoic paradoxes). Written in 46 BC. e., preserved
• consolatio (Comfort) - this text was written after the death of Cicero's daughter and is mentioned by him in a letter to Atticus at the beginning of 45 BC. uh... was lost.
• Hortensius sive de philosophia (Hortensius, or On Philosophy) - written at the beginning of 45 BC. e. This fragmentary dialogue between Cicero, Catulus, Hortensius, and Lucullus converted Blessed Augustine to Christianity.
• academica priora(first edition academics). 45 BC e.
  • Catulus (Catulus), 1st part academica priora, mostly lost.
  • Lucullus (Lucullus), part 2 academica priora, preserved.
• academic libri or academica posteriora(second edition academics)
• De finibus bonorum et malorum (About the limits of good and evil) - written in June 45 BC. e. and dedicated to Brutus. Preserved.
• Tusculanae disputationes (Tusculan conversations) - 2nd half of 45 BC. e. This treatise is also dedicated to Brutus. Preserved.
• Cato Maior de Senectute (Cato the Elder, or On Old Age) - written in 45/44 BC. e. and is a dialogue between Cato the Censor, Scipio Aemilianus and Gaius Lelius the Wise, dedicated to Atticus and preserved to this day.
• Laelius de amicitia (Leliy, or About Friendship) - written in 45/44 BC. e. "a friend for a friend". Here again Scipio Aemilianus and Lelius the Wise are talking. The text has been preserved.
• De natura deorum (On the nature of the gods) - written in 45/44 BC. e. and dedicated to Brutus. This is a dialogue between the Stoic Quintus Lucilius Balbus, the Epicurean Gaius Velleius and the academician Gaius Aurelius Cotta. The text has been preserved.
• De divinatione (About divination (religious predictions)) is a dialogue between Cicero and his brother Quintus, written in 44 BC. e. The text has been preserved.
• De fato (About fate) - a dialogue with Aulus Hirtius, written in the middle of 44 BC. e. and left unfinished. Partially preserved.
• De gloria (About fame) is a lost treatise written in July 44 BC. e.
• De officiis (About Responsibilities) - written in the autumn-winter of 44 BC. e. in the form of letters to his son Mark, who was then studying in Athens. The text has been preserved.

Letters

More than 800 letters of Cicero have survived, containing a lot of biographical information and a lot of valuable information about Roman society at the end of the republic period.

Letters were collected in 48 - 43 years. BC e. Cicero's secretary Tyro. According to J. Carcopino, all correspondence, including letters not intended for publication, was made public by order of Octavian Augustus in the late 30s BC. e. for political purposes. Letters are divided into four types:

• Letters to family and friends (epistulae ad familiares)
• Letters to Brother Quintus (epistulae ad Quintum fratrem)
• Letters to Mark Junius Brutus (epistulae ad M. Brutum)
• Letters to Atticus (epistulae ad Atticum).

Style

Already in the ancient era, Cicero was recognized as one of the trendsetters in Latin prose. As a result, the language of Cicero is recognized as the norm of classical Latin. Compared with the literature of the II century BC. e. Cicero is distinguished by a unified grammar and uniform principles for the selection of vocabulary. Like all good orators of his time, Cicero carefully followed the rhythm of speech, important in Latin, which is completely lost in translations.

Many features of the style of Cicero's writings varied considerably depending on the genre.

Samples of some rhetorical figures of Cicero (on the example of the first speech against Catiline)

Rhetorical questions: Quo usque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra? Quam diu etiam furor iste tuus nos eludet? Quem ad finem sese effrenata iactabit audacia?- "How long will you, Catiline, abuse our patience? How long will you, in your rage, mock us? To what extent will you boast of your insolence, which knows no bridle?

Isokolon: " Nobiscum versari iam diutius non potes; non feram, non patiar, non sinam "-" You can no longer be among us; I am this I will not tolerate, I will not allow, I will not allow»

Hyperbaton: " magna dis inmortalibus habenda est atque huic ipsi Iovi Statori, antiquissimo custodi huius urbis, gratia, quod hanc tam taetram, tam horribilem tamque infestam rei publicae pestem totiens iam effugimus» - « Great should be paid to the immortal gods and, in particular, to this Jupiter Stator, the oldest guardian of our city, gratitude for the fact that we have already been delivered so many times from such a disgusting ulcer, so terrible and so pernicious for the state ”

In judicial and political speeches, Cicero was especially careful in framing his speeches, since they often influenced the outcome of the case. Apparently, the main purpose of embellishing speeches was to emphasize the most important details. As a result, Cicero placed the strongest arguments in support of his position at the beginning and end of the substantive part of the speech, and tried to avoid potentially unpleasant moments for the client. To diversify his speech, Cicero referred to similar cases in Roman history, told historical anecdotes, quoted Greek and Roman classics, sayings, supplemented the presentation of the circumstances of the case with brief fictitious dialogues with the plaintiff or defendant. Cicero skillfully uses humor to his advantage, and more often in court speeches than in political ones. When proving their views ( probatio) and refutation of the opponent's theses ( refutatio) rhetorical embellishments are the most, especially in cases where the defendant's guilt is difficult to refute. On the contrary, there are relatively few appeals to purely legal issues in court speeches. Often, the appeals to the miserable condition of the accused and appeals to the mercy of the judges, traditional for Roman judicial speeches, are often similar. Similar digressions are present in almost every of his speeches. At the same time, for example, quotations from the Latin and Greek classics are most in those speeches in which Cicero hopes to divert attention from weak evidence. There are absolutely no quotes in political speeches. Political speeches before the people and before the Senate also differ. Before the senators, Cicero speaks more freely, does not allow rhetorical appeals to the gods, and also evaluates controversial political figures - for example, the Gracchi brothers - in a different way than before the common people. In addition, in the Senate, the speaker often used Greek words and expressions that were understandable to the political elite, but they are not in front of the people. The vocabulary also differs: in some speeches there are a lot of colloquial expressions and sayings (most of them in political invectives), in others - solemn archaisms, in others - vulgar expressions, up to "not quite decent words". Among the most characteristic rhetorical devices of Cicero, common with other speakers of his time, is an exclamation (the most famous example is “ O times! Oh manners!”), rhetorical question, anaphora, parallelism, isocolon (isocolon), hyperbaton. Other important rhetorical devices were the widest use of superlative adjectives and the deliberate use of cognate words in one sentence. However, these expressive means were not the prerogative of Cicero: they were also used by other professional orators of the 1st century BC. e .: for example, the author of the "Rhetoric to Herennius".

The style of Cicero's letters differs markedly from his other writings, but different letters are very heterogeneous in style. Cicero himself divided letters into public (official) and private (private), and among the latter he singled out two separate subclasses - “friendly and playful” and “serious and important”. In personal letters, Cicero does not resort to the use of titles and dates, often using hints that are understandable only to the addressee. When communicating with the closest people, he often uses everyday speech, uses proverbs, riddles, games with words and regularly wits (his opponent Clodius is his favorite object for jokes). More formal letters to magistrates and people with whom Cicero was on cool terms. As M. von Albrecht notes, "correspondence between enemies is most polite." Thanks to the use of a living colloquial language, Cicero's correspondence also reveals the richest lexicon: many words and phrases are not found in his other writings. Quite often, Cicero in his correspondence switches to the ancient Greek language known to the Roman elite. Sometimes in letters there are deviations from the classical syntax of the Latin language.

The philosophical and, to a lesser extent, rhetorical treatises of Cicero were decisively influenced by the Greek tradition. Almost all treatises are written in the form of a dialogue, common for ancient philosophical writings, and Cicero preferred not short replicas in the form of questions and answers, as in Plato's early dialogues, but long (sometimes for a whole book) speeches, most characteristic of Aristotle. Less clear is the origin of the transfer by the author of the time of the action of the dialogues to the past. Cicero's innovation lies in the fact that it was he who began to carefully work on the style of compositions. Before him, rhetorical treatises were almost never carefully finished. The style of philosophical treatises had been worked on before, but Cicero paid great attention to this issue. Among other things, he carefully monitored the preservation of the stylistic features of the speeches of famous orators of the past. However, the main innovation of Cicero was the use of the Latin language in the philosophical literature instead of the ancient Greek, although he himself attributes this merit to his friend Varro. Cicero criticized skeptics who considered the Latin language unworthy for philosophical writings, but at the same time read translated plays.

Sometimes Cicero was engaged in poetry. As a rule, he turned to the experience of the old Roman poets and neglected modern trends. His poetic experiments are evaluated in a diametrically opposite way. For example, I. M. Tronsky refuses Cicero's poetic talent, and M. von Albrecht believes that he had a great influence on the Roman poetic tradition and even paved the way for the poets of the Augustan era. However, the German researcher admits that the influence of Cicero on the authors of the Maecenas circle has not yet been studied.

Thanks to the large number of surviving speeches and letters of Cicero, it is possible to trace his evolution as an orator and, to a lesser extent, as a writer (Cicero created most of the treatises in the last years of his life).

Fragment of Cicero's speech for Rabirius

“But, you say, it was Rabirius who killed Saturninus. Oh, if he did! In this case, I would not ask for his deliverance from execution, but demanded a reward for him.

In the speeches for Publius Quinctius and Sextus Roscius of Amerius, there are signs of the authorship of an insufficiently experienced lawyer - a similar turn is repeated twice in one speech, and individual elements of the speech resemble school rhetorical exercises. According to M. E. Grabar-Passek, “Describing the position of Quinctius, if he loses the process, Cicero depicts his fate in such black colors that one might think that Quinctius, at least, goes into exile with confiscation of property; and he could only lose a piece of land in Gaul.” The speeches against Verres are carefully designed and mark a huge step forward for Cicero the orator. In the 60s BC. e. Cicero continued to develop as an orator, mastering new methods of oratory. So, in his speech for Murena, he did not even try to deny that his client bribed voters in the elections. Instead, the speaker, joking profusely, invited the audience to look at the events that took place as a manifestation of Murena's sincere love for fellow citizens. In addition, 63 BC. e. also applies to the fiery first speech against Catiline - one of the most famous speeches in the entire career of Cicero. The next three "catilinaria", however, largely repeat the first. Oratorical career of Cicero in the 50s BC. e. evaluated differently. M. E. Grabar-Passek believes that constant narcissism did not do him any good, especially in criminal speeches, where it is completely out of place. She also takes the shift from light humor to evil sarcasm as a symptom of recession. On the contrary, M. von Albrecht declares the visible shortcomings of Cicero's speeches during this period as intentional, and recognizes the speeches of the late 50s as the strongest speeches in his career. In the early 40s BC. e. Cicero's speeches change greatly, which is associated with the fact that the main judicial decisions were henceforth taken by the will of Caesar, and not by the judges themselves. Since court speeches now had only one real addressee, the orator had to adapt to his tastes. Thus, the style of speeches of this period underwent significant changes in the direction of simplification ("Attic style"), which was preferred by the dictator. Sometimes the revision of the traditional oratory of Cicero is explained precisely by an attempt to curry favor with him by bringing his speeches closer to the rhetorical ideal of Caesar. Cicero regularly appeals to the well-known mercy of Caesar, not for himself, but also for his clients. He asked Ligarius not to be considered a Pompeian - as if he had ended up in Pompey's army by accident. He chose a similar strategy in the defense of Deiotarus, trying to prove that the ruler of Galatia joined Pompey by mistake. After the assassination of Caesar, the orator regains freedom of expression, which manifested itself in very harsh and thorough “philippics” against Mark Antony.

In his early speeches, the little-known Cicero often emphasized that he was a "new man" who had achieved everything on his own, and in later speeches he regularly recalled his consulship. Early in his oratorical career, Cicero sometimes abused isocolon, but later on he began to resort to it less often. Over time, the use of interrogative sentences and parenthesis becomes frequent. Cicero begins to make assumptions more often and immediately confirm them, which creates an ironic effect. The use of various grammatical phrases also changes: for example, the frequency of the use of the gerund increases and the use of the gerund decreases. Towards the end of his life, Cicero begins to use various turns with adverbs more often than before, although in treatises he, on the contrary, begins to turn less often to one of them - the absolute ablative. The requirements for observing the rhythm of speech in oratory forced the speaker to resort to the choice of synonymous words and constructions with the required orders of short and long syllables. This approach is reflected in all of Cicero's speeches, although the orator's preferences have gradually evolved over time. Preferences in the choice of vocabulary also change, as a result of which a different frequency of a number of words is observed in later speeches than in early ones. In addition, in the "philippics" it is often emphatically short. M. Albrecht characterizes the main changes in Cicero's oratorical manner as a growing desire for purity of language (purism), less frequent use of lush rhetorical means, "strength and transparency instead of abundance."

Family

Cicero was married twice. His first wife (not later than 76 BC) was Terence, who belonged to a rather noble family and gave birth to two children - Tullia, who died during the life of her parents (in 45 BC) and Mark, consul 30 years before n. e. This marriage ended in divorce in 46 BC. e. After that, the 60-year-old Cicero married a second time - to the young Publius. She loved him so much that she was jealous of her own stepdaughter and openly rejoiced at the death of Tullia. The result was a new divorce.

According to Plutarch, one of the sisters, Clodia, dreamed of becoming Cicero's wife after his consulship, which caused Terence's hatred.

Cicero in culture and art

Memory of Cicero in Antiquity

For contemporaries and immediate descendants, Cicero was best known as a master of words. The younger contemporary Gaius Sallust Crispus, whose enmity with Cicero in ancient times became a topic for school essays, supported the suppression of the Catiline conspiracy in the work of the same name. A supporter of Mark Antony, Gaius Asinius Pollio, spoke of Cicero with undisguised hostility. In the fundamental "History from the Foundation of the City" by Titus Livius, they see the realization of Cicero's ideas about an ideal historical composition. Livy's letter is known, in which he recommends his son to read Demosthenes and Cicero. They also remembered his political merits. Thanks to his enmity with Mark Antony, the emperor Octavian Augustus (who agreed with the execution of Mark Tullius in 43 BC) admitted the son of Cicero to the consulship and membership in the college of augurs, in which his father was also a member. Cicero's title "father of the fatherland" ( pater patriae) began to be used by emperors. The poets of the Augustan age, however, do not mention his name. Emperor Claudius defended Cicero from attacks by Asinius Gallus, son of Asinius Pollio. Pliny the Elder spoke warmly of Cicero, and his nephew Pliny the Younger became a follower of Cicero in the field of style. Tacitus' Dialogue on Orators has much in common with Cicero's rhetorical treatises. Among the speakers there were both supporters (among others - Seneca the Elder) and opponents of his style, but starting from Quintilian, the opinion was fixed that it was the works of Cicero that were an unsurpassed example of oratory. The main opponents of Mark Tullius were supporters of the Attic school of eloquence and archaists, although one of the leaders of the latter, Mark Cornelius Fronto, spoke very highly of Cicero. From the 2nd century A.D. e. interest in Cicero as a person begins to gradually fade away. The biographer Plutarch and the historians Appian and Cassius Dio are reserved about him. However, Cicero continued to be an important "school author", and the study of rhetoric was not conceivable without acquaintance with his writings. Nevertheless, the pedagogical ideas laid down by him in the dialogue “About the Speaker” about the need for the all-round development of a person turned out to be unclaimed.

At the same time, interest in Cicero the philosopher increased. Among the admirers of Cicero's philosophy there were many Christian thinkers, some of whom were very strongly influenced by him. Many of them were educated in pagan schools, in which the study of the works of Cicero was a very important element of education. Especially popular among the apologists of ancient Christianity were the arguments in support of the existence of the gods from the second book of the treatise On the Nature of the Gods (these thoughts, apparently, did not belong to Cicero, but to the Stoic philosophers). One of the most highly valued fragments was the reasoning in support of the rationality of the world order, put into the mouth of Balbus. On the contrary, almost unnoticed was the third book of the same treatise, in which Cicero put forward counterarguments against the theses expressed earlier. G. G. Mayorov even admits that this part of Cicero's work could correspond with intentional gaps in place of Cicero's counterarguments, which led to the incomplete preservation of this book. Under the strong influence of the treatise On the Nature of the Gods, in particular, the dialogue Octavius ​​by Mark Minucius Felix was written: Caecilius in the dialogue of Minucius Felix actually repeats the arguments of Cotta in the mentioned treatise of Cicero. Nicknamed the “Christian Cicero,” Lactantius developed the ideas of Mark Tullius’s “On the State” from a Christian point of view and borrowed a significant part of the treatise “On the Nature of the Gods.” According to S. L. Utchenko, the degree of borrowing was so significant that later authors sometimes confused one of the treatises of Lactantius with a retelling of the work of Cicero. The strong influence of Cicero on Lactantius is also found in the style of his writings. Ambrose of Milan supplemented and corrected Cicero with Christian theses, but on the whole closely followed his treatise On Duties. According to F. F. Zelinsky, "Ambrose christianized Cicero." A significant similarity is found between one of his sermons and Cicero's letter to his brother Quintus. Jerome of Stridon highly valued Cicero, and many quotations from his writings are found in his writings. Augustine Aurelius recalled that it was the reading of the Hortensius dialogue that made him a real Christian. According to him, the writings of Cicero "philosophy in Latin was begun and completed." However, among the early Christian theologians there were also opponents of the active use of ancient philosophy, who called for a complete cleansing of the pagan cultural heritage (this fundamentalist point of view was expressed, for example, by Tertullian), but they were in the minority. The late antique philosopher Boethius left a commentary on the Topeka, and in the treatise Consolation by Philosophy, parallels are found with the dialogue On Divination. Pagan authors also continued to appreciate Cicero. Macrobius, for example, wrote a commentary on the "dream of Scipio" from the treatise On the State.

Memory of Cicero in the Middle Ages and Modern Times

Due to the positive attitude towards Cicero on the part of a number of influential Christian theologians, his writings, despite their considerable volume, were often copied by medieval monks, which contributed to the good preservation of the texts of this author. However, the influence of his books also caused a response from church hierarchs who were dissatisfied with the popularity of the pagan author. For example, at the turn of the 6th-7th centuries, Pope Gregory I called for the destruction of the writings of Cicero: they allegedly distracted young people from reading the Bible.

At the beginning of the Middle Ages, interest in Cicero gradually declined - by the 9th century, some authors already consider Tullius and Cicero to be two different people. Isidore of Seville complained that his writings were too voluminous, and rhetorical treatises used in teaching rhetoric were most often used from the works of Cicero during this period. The main manuals for oratory were the treatise "On the Finding of Material", which Mark Tullius himself was critical of, and the "Rhetoric to Herennius" attributed to Cicero. The first treatise was found in medieval libraries 12 times more often than "On the Orator" (148 references in medieval catalogs against 12). The manuscripts "On the Finding of Material" are divided into two groups, depending on the presence or absence of several significant gaps in them - mutili("broken, mutilated") and integri("whole"), although there are other differences between them. The oldest surviving manuscripts of the group mutili older (9th-10th century) than the oldest known manuscripts integri(X century and later). Very often this treatise was rewritten together with the Rhetoric to Herennius. In the early Middle Ages, a number of Cicero's writings were forgotten, and contemporaries more often preferred to read other ancient authors, although some of Cicero's works still had readers. Of the philosophical treatises, the most popular were "On Old Age", "On Friendship", "Tusculan Conversations" and a fragment of the last book of the treatise "On the State" - "Scipio's dream". In connection with the decline in literacy and the growing interest in short excerpts, Bede the Venerable collected the most important passages from the writings of Cicero together. In his biography of Charlemagne, Einhard quoted from the Tusculan Discourses, and some fragments of this work indicate his familiarity with the speeches of Cicero. Servat Loup, abbot of the monastery of Ferriers, collected the writings of Cicero and noted with regret that his contemporaries speak Latin much worse than the great Roman. Gadoard compiled a large collection of extracts from the writings of Tullius and Cicero and other authors. At the same time, a large library served as a source of extracts, in which not only most of the surviving treatises of the Roman author were stored, but also the treatise “Hortensius”, which was subsequently lost. A good acquaintance with the writings of Cicero is demonstrated by Herbert of Aurillac, who later became pope under the name of Sylvester II. It is assumed that the speeches of Cicero in medieval manuscripts could owe their safety to him. By the 11th-12th centuries, the writings of Marcus Tullius were becoming popular again: judging by library inventories and reading lists, Cicero was among the most widely read ancient authors. Cicero was John of Salisbury's favorite Latin author and one of two favorites (along with Seneca) of Roger Bacon. Dante Alighieri knew well and repeatedly quoted the writings of Cicero. In some episodes of the Divine Comedy, the influence of his work is revealed, and Dante placed Cicero himself in limbo, among virtuous pagans. In Dante's philosophical writings, including written in Italian, he unwittingly approached Cicero, who laid the foundation for the tradition of writing philosophical works in the vernacular. A little earlier, Elred of Rivosky responded to Cicero's treatise On Friendship with his own essay On Spiritual Friendship.

Among the admirers of Cicero was Petrarch, for whom the writings of this Roman author were no longer of particular value, but the very personality of Cicero. The discovery by Petrarch of Cicero's deeply personal correspondence with Atticus in 1345 marked the revival of an entire epistolary genre. According to F. F. Zelinsky, “[d]at that time people knew only an impersonal letter - a treatise letter of Seneca, a letter of Pliny's anecdote, a sermon letter of Jerome; individual writing as a literary work was considered unthinkable. Subsequently, Petrarch, like his idol, published his personal correspondence. However, a careful study of the found correspondence of Marcus Tullius puzzled Petrarch, since Cicero turned out to be far from being the ideal person as previously thought. In addition to letters to Atticus, Petrarch discovered Cicero's letters to Quintus and a speech in defense of Archius. Poggio Bracciolini and Coluccio Salutati discovered several other works of Cicero that were considered lost (however, some of them were listed in the inventories of medieval libraries and were unknown to the general public). In 1421, in the library of Lodi, in a chest that had not been opened for a long time, a manuscript was found with three rhetorical works "On the Orator", "The Orator" and "Brutus" in very good condition; up to this point, these writings were known only with strong distortions. By 1428, when from the manuscript Laudensis(according to the Latin name of the city) managed to make several copies, it mysteriously disappeared. The reading difficulties encountered by the scribes of this manuscript are interpreted in favor of a very ancient time of its creation - probably before the invention of the Carolingian minuscule. The close acquaintance of many humanists (Boccaccio, Leonardo Bruni, Niccolo Niccoli, Coluccio Salutati, Ambrogio Traversari, Pietro Paolo Vergerio, Poggio Bracciolini) with all the writings of Cicero contributed to the development of the humanistic character of the Renaissance. F. F. Zelinsky even calls Mark Tullius "the inspirer of the Renaissance." Philosophical writings of Cicero became an ideal for humanists due to the broad outlook of the author, the rejection of dogmatism, its understandable presentation and careful literary finishing. The popularity of Cicero was facilitated by the widespread study of his writings in educational institutions. In the less powerful schools, the curriculum was sometimes limited to just Virgil from all poetry and Cicero from all prose. Their inclusion in the curriculum was due to the absence of serious contradictions with Christianity; for similar reasons, the materialistic poem of Lucretius Cara and the "obscene" work of Petronius the Arbiter were not studied in schools. As a result of the colonization of America, American Indians also met Cicero: he was studied as a classical author at the Collegium of Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco in Mexico City in the 1530s.

The letters and philosophical treatises of Cicero were imitated by many Renaissance authors. This process had a great influence on the formation of the style of New Latin prose, which subsequently contributed to the development of the national literatures of Europe. At the same time, the works of Cicero were imitated far beyond the borders of the former Roman Empire - in particular, in the kingdoms of Bohemia, Hungary and Poland and in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Gasparin de Bergamo played an important role in the process of adapting Cicero's style to the needs of the present. In addition, the works of the Roman author very early began to be translated into spoken European languages ​​(primarily Italian and French). The Catholic Church initially opposed the study in schools of a variant of Latin based on the writings of a pagan author, but under the strong influence of Cardinal Pietro Bembo, it was Rome that became the center for the dissemination of Cicero's style. Erasmus of Rotterdam, an admirer of Cicero, criticized especially zealous imitators of the Roman author's style in his pamphlet The Ciceronian. In his opinion, modern attempts to imitate Cicero look at least ridiculous. The work of Erasmus caused a lot of responses from all over Europe (in particular, Guillaume Bude and Julius Caesar Scaliger spoke out).

Interest in Cicero persisted not only among humanists. Of the ideologues of the Reformation, Cicero was highly valued by Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli, although even starting from Calvin, Protestant thinkers began to deny his merits. In the Commonwealth, attempts were made to comprehend the concepts of state, freedom and citizenship mainly through ancient political thought - mainly through the writings of Cicero. Nicolaus Copernicus recalled that one of the most important reasons that forced him to reconsider the dominant geocentric model of the universe was the mention of the opposite point of view by Cicero. Although many of the thoughts expressed in the writings of Cicero were first proposed by his predecessors, it is Marcus Tullius who has the merit in preserving them for posterity. A good acquaintance with the philosophy of Cicero is found among a number of thinkers of the 17th-18th centuries - John Locke, John Toland, David Hume, Anthony Shaftesbury, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Gabriel Mably and others. At the same time, the moral philosophy developed by Cicero had the greatest influence. During the Enlightenment, the attempt of Marcus Tullius to create a popular practical philosophy was especially highly valued. However, the development of fundamentally new philosophical systems of Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz and others set a new fashion in the style of philosophizing, and Cicero, who allowed the peaceful coexistence of different views, did not fit well into the new ideal of the philosopher. As a result, opinions about Cicero were divided: Voltaire, who was traditionally critical of authorities, admired him, used his ideas in his writings, and even wrote a play in defense of Cicero after the success of Crebillon's Catiline, but treated Marcus Tullius very reservedly. Interest in Cicero was not limited to his philosophy. The admiration for classical antiquity was also manifested in the fact that it was Cicero who became a model of political eloquence for a number of leaders of the Great French Revolution - especially Mirabeau and Robespierre. The Prussian King Frederick II was a connoisseur of Cicero: on military campaigns, he always took with him the treatises “Tusculan Conversations”, “On the Nature of the Gods” and “On the Limits of Good and Evil”. In 1779, on his orders, work began on the translation of all the writings of Cicero into German.

In the 19th century, scholars who began to get closely acquainted with the primary sources of ancient philosophy were henceforth able to do without the popular exposition of Cicero. Kant, however, cited Cicero as an example of a popular and accessible survey of philosophy. The approval of Cicero by Barthold Niebuhr was replaced by sharp criticism of his activities by Wilhelm Drumann and Theodor Mommsen. The influence of the last two authors predetermined the biased attitude towards Cicero in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Supporters of Cicero (in particular, Gaston Boissier) were in the minority. Friedrich Engels, in a letter to Karl Marx, wrote: "A lower canal than this fellow has not been found in the midst of a simpleton from the very creation of the world."

The image of Cicero in works of art

• F. I. Tyutchev dedicated a poem of the same name to Cicero. In it, the author tries to console the literary hero, who regrets the decline of Rome, with the fact that he can consider himself exalted by the gods, as he witnessed such a great and tragic historical moment.
• Cicero became the central character in Robert Harris' novel Imperium (2006) and its sequel (Lustrum, 2009), which combine the documented facts of the speaker's biography with fiction.
• Cicero appears in the series of books by C. McCullough "Lords of Rome".
• Cicero is one of the key characters in the Rome series. Here he was played by David Bamber.
• In the movie "Julius Caesar" (Great Britain, 1970), the role of Cicero was played by Andre Morell.
• Cicero is one of the characters in Andre Brink's drama "Caesar", dedicated to the conspiracy and assassination of Caesar.

The image of Cicero in historiography

According to the researcher Cicero G. Benario, the large-scale and diverse work of the Roman author, a rich political career at the epicenter of the political events of the Roman Republic, as well as an abundance of diametrically opposed assessments of his activities, force historians to deal only with certain aspects of his biography. According to him, "Cicero confounds the scholar" (Eng. Cicero confounds the scholar).

The critical attitude of T. Mommsen to Cicero predetermined the low assessment by historians of his work and the relatively little interest in his personality in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Such views manifested themselves especially strongly and for a long time in German historiography. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Italian historian G. Ferrero saw in Cicero a man of the level of Caesar. E. Meyer developed the subsequently popular idea that Cicero theoretically substantiated the “Pompeian principle”, which the author considered the direct forerunner of the Augustan principle and, accordingly, the entire Roman Empire. In the Russian Empire, Cicero was studied by S. I. Vekhov, who analyzed the treatise “On the State”, R. Yu. Vipper, who described him as an insufficiently consistent politician without firm convictions and personal courage, and especially by F. F. Zelinsky. In addition to translating a number of works by the Roman author into Russian and an article about him in the Brockhaus encyclopedia, Zelinsky published in German a very valuable work Cicero in the course of the centuries (German: Cicero im Wandel der Jahrhunderte), which examined Cicero's place in world culture.

In 1925-29, E. Chacheri's two-volume work "Cicero and His Time" (Italian: Cicerone e i suoi tempi) was published, supplemented and republished in 1939-41. The Italian historian did not deny the existence of Cicero's own convictions, but pointed out that he too easily succumbed to circumstances. In addition, he recognized the influence of the treatise "On the State" on Octavian Augustus. Ronald Syme was critical of Cicero. In 1939, a large article on Cicero was published in the Pauli-Wissow encyclopedia. This work, which became the fruit of the collaboration of four authors, had a volume of about 210 thousand words.

After the Second World War, there was a tendency to revise the negative image of Cicero, while at the same time falling infatuation with Caesar, his main opponent. In 1946, the Danish researcher G. Frisch published a study of Cicero's "Philippic" against a broad historical background. The reviewer of this work, E. M. Shtaerman, insists that the author has fallen into the opposite extreme, whitewashing Cicero beyond all measure, and believes that the author praises not only Mark Tullius, but also the senatorial republic, although “this ‘republicanism’ is, in fact, very reactionary ". In 1947, the works of F. Wilkin "The Eternal Lawyer" (eng. The Eternal Lawyer) about Cicero and J. Carcopino "The Secret of Cicero's Correspondence" (fr. Les secrets de la correspondance de Cicéron) were published. F. Wilkin, a judge by profession, presented Cicero as a defender of all the offended and a fighter for justice, repeatedly drawing parallels with modernity. The two-volume work of the French researcher is devoted not so much to the analysis of letters as to the dark question of the circumstances of the publication of this very frank literary monument, which casts a shadow on Cicero. According to Carcopino, the personal correspondence was published by Octavian to discredit the popular Republican among his contemporaries and posterity. The reviewer of this work, E. M. Shtaerman, came to the conclusion that Karkopino was free to use sources to prove his thoughts.

In 1957, the 2000th anniversary of the death of Cicero was celebrated all over the world. In memory of this anniversary, several scientific conferences were held and a number of papers were published. In particular, two collections of articles dedicated to Cicero in Russian were published in 1958 and 1959. A. Ch. Kozarzhevsky, who reviewed them, noted the emphasis of both works on popularizing the heritage of Cicero. In general, he highly appreciated the collection published at Moscow State University, disagreeing only with certain provisions of the authors - for example, using the term "just war" in classical Roman ( bellum iustum), and not in the Marxist sense, with a characterization of Cicero as a patriot (the reviewer believes that Cicero's views are not patriotism, but nationalism) and with the thesis of Cicero's consistency in literary predilections: according to the reviewer, this statement contradicts the assessment of F. Engels. The collection published by the Institute of World Literature of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR did not fully satisfy the reviewer. On the whole, he highly appreciated the articles by M. E. Grabar-Passek on the beginning of Cicero's political career and E. A. Berkova on Cicero's criticism of superstitions, he speaks negatively of F. A. Petrovsky's insufficiently detailed essay on Cicero's views on literature and on the articles of T. I. Kuznetsova and I. P. Strelnikova, which are devoted to the analysis of speeches against Verres and against Catiline, respectively. The reviewer believes that the stylistic features of the speeches against Verres are not covered in sufficient detail, and the analysis of the speeches against Catiline is very chaotic in structure. He also blames the latter authors for citing subjective and inaccurate (according to the reviewer) translations of F. F. Zelinsky and regrets the insufficient use of research literature. In 1959, the first volume of the History of Roman Literature was also published, which included a detailed section on Cicero written by M. E. Grabar-Passek. This work has been highly commended.

In 1969, M. Geltzer published the monograph "Cicero: a biographical experience" (German: Cicero: Ein biographischer Versuch). It was based on an article in the Pauli-Wissow encyclopedia, the author of the biographical part of which was Geltzer. The book was noticeably revised and supplemented taking into account new research (new material accounted for about a quarter of the entire work). At the same time, reviewer E. Grün noted that, along with the advantages of the original text, Geltzer's book inherited its shortcomings, which did not allow him to draw up a complete portrait of Cicero. He also pointed out the unexpected gaps in such a detailed work when highlighting some facts of the biography of Mark Tullius, as well as the author's insufficient analysis of the causes of a number of events. The reviewer also disagreed with a number of provisions made by the author (their enumeration takes half a page). A. Douglas joins E. Grün's assessment and regrets that the author failed to reveal how Cicero's speeches were perceived in his time. J. Siver highly appreciates the work of Geltzer, highlighting his ability to work with sources and understand intricate family ties, and notes that the author has managed to overcome T. Mommsen's categorical interpretations. This was manifested both in a very positive general assessment of Cicero by Gelzer, and in the author's refusal from artificial modernizations of Roman political life.

In 1971, D. Stockton's work Cicero: A Political Biography was published. According to reviewer E. Lintott, the beginning of Cicero's career and the historical background of his activities are described too briefly, and the absence of a description of legal proceedings in the late Roman Republic in the biography of a professional lawyer can be considered a significant drawback of the work. The reviewer argues with the author on several issues - because of the overly schematic, in his opinion, comparison of the Roman legal system with the British one, and because of the modernization of the forms of political organization in the Roman Republic: the author compares the optimates and populars with modern political parties, with which he decisively disagrees E. Lintott. In his opinion, D. Stockton, on the whole, successfully considers the activities of Cicero in the 60s BC. e. and in the last two years of life, but the coverage of the events of the 50s and early 40s BC. e. not detailed enough. The reviewer F. Trautman noted the author's good and bright style, as well as the abundant and convenient bibliography. In his opinion, Stockton joins a new generation of researchers who are moving away from negative assessments of Cicero, recognizing his undoubted merits (patriotism, vigor, oratory), but also noting the lack of a strong character necessary for a politician at critical moments.

At the same time, a semi-documentary biography of Cicero by D. Shackleton-Bailey was published in the Classical Life and Letters series. The author, known as the translator of Cicero's letters into English, showed the life of Cicero on the material of quotations from his correspondence with the author's comments. Speeches and treatises, on the other hand, receive little attention. Trying to convey the flavor of the letters, the author translated the inserts in ancient Greek into French. Since the surviving correspondence was created almost exclusively after the middle of the 60s BC. e., Cicero's childhood and youth are described very briefly. The selection of letters in the work is very subjective, and reviewer E. Rawson noted that experts in this period of Roman history in some cases can offer a worthy alternative. The author's comment was characterized by the reviewer as valuable and often non-trivial. Another reviewer, D. Stockton, suggested that the book, despite the title, is not a biography of Cicero in the usual sense. According to his observation, the author does not hide his negative attitude towards the unnatural and unrevealed speeches of Mark Tullius. He considers the lack of a full-fledged reference apparatus to be a serious drawback. Reviewer G. Phifer notes that Stockton's biography casts Cicero in an unfavorable light, which is largely due to the lack of surviving letters until the mid-60s BC. e.

In 1972, the monograph by S. L. Utchenko "Cicero and his time" was published (subsequently republished). In it, against a broad historical background, the activities of Cicero were considered. Because of the emphasis on the political activities of Marcus Tullius, the book is essentially a political biography. Literary and oratorical activities were considered briefly. A separate chapter of the monograph was devoted to the consideration of the image of Cicero in world culture and historiography. This book by S. L. Utchenko was very popular with readers.

In 1990, H. Habicht's book "Cicero the Politician" (Eng. Cicero the Politician; at the same time it was published in German), created by the author on the basis of lectures delivered in 1987 at universities in the USA and Germany, was published. The author points to the unusual nature of Cicero's career, emphasizing that another "new man" Marius failed to become consul suo anno, that is, at the minimum age, but Cicero managed to achieve this. The author believes that the inflated conceit of Mark Tullius is quite natural in the aggressive and competitive environment of noble nobles, as a result of which Cicero had to obey the demands of society and demonstrate the same qualities as the aristocrats. The German researcher believes that if personal letters and speeches of Cicero's contemporaries (for example, Pompey and Caesar) had been preserved, they would have found similar character traits of the authors. Habicht puts Cicero above Caesar, since the latter's actions were aimed primarily at destruction, and Mark Tullius - at creation. Reviewer J. May believes that Habicht's book convincingly proves the inconsistency of critical views on Cicero, which are still widespread due to the influence of T. Mommsen. The reviewer L. de Blois notes that the strong dependence of the author on the letters of Cicero is fraught with the possible influence of the views of Mark Tullius himself on the researcher. He also points to the lack of clarification on the meaning of some basic terms and to a sketchy, simplified and somewhat outdated view of Roman politics. According to the reviewer, the author sometimes makes overly self-confident statements, which certainly need additional justification. Reviewer R. Kallet-Marx believes that the author underestimated the financial benefits of Cicero from court speeches, and regrets that he did not sufficiently disclose the content of a number of slogans that Cicero put forward as basic political principles.

In 1991, in the series "Life of Remarkable People", a translation of the biography of Cicero by the French researcher P. Grimal into Russian was published. The translator G.S. Knabe in his introductory article noted the deep knowledge of the sources by the author, which is evident to a specialist even taking into account the fact that the popular science format does not imply references to sources, as well as a masterful consideration of the personality of Cicero as a product of ancient Roman culture. G. S. Knabe attributed the book’s shortcomings to the insufficiently clear description of the historical background in the 500-page book (partly this problem was leveled by the introductory article of the translator - a well-known historian), the imperfect structure with frequent references to previously stated thoughts and the insufficient depth of analysis when talking about philosophical writings Cicero.

In 2002, a collection of articles (English Brill's Companion to Cicero: Oratory and Rhetoric) was published, the structure of which (17 articles written by different authors) was focused on the comprehensive disclosure of Cicero's oratorical activity. J. Zetzel recognized the high scientific level of the vast majority of articles , but expressed regret that fifty pages of text were devoted to the consideration of three formal speeches before Caesar, while the important speech for Archia did not receive special consideration. works, but overall highly appreciates the collection.

In 2008, the work of E. Lintott "Cicero as

Mark Tullius Cicero, the famous orator of antiquity, embodies, along with Demosthenes, the highest level of oratory.

Cicero lived from 106 to 43 BC. e. He was born in Arpin, southeast of Rome, descended from the equestrian class. Cicero received an excellent education, studied Greek poets, and was interested in Greek literature. In Rome, he studied eloquence with the famous orators Antony and Crassus, listened to and commented on the well-known tribune Sulpicius speaking at the forum, and studied the theory of eloquence. The orator needed to know Roman law, and Cicero studied it with the then popular lawyer Scaevola. Knowing the Greek language well, Cicero became acquainted with Greek philosophy through closeness with the Epicurean Phaedrus, the Stoic Diodorus, and the head of the new academic school, Philo. He also learned dialectics from him - the art of argument and argumentation.

Although Cicero did not adhere to a specific philosophical system, in many of his works he expounds views close to Stoicism. From this point of view, in the second part of the treatise "On the State", he considers the best statesman, who must have all the qualities of a highly moral person. Only he could improve morals and prevent the death of the state. Cicero's views on the best political system are set forth in the first part of this treatise. The author comes to the conclusion that the best state system existed in the Roman Republic before the Gracchi reform, when the monarchy was carried out in the person of two consuls, the power of the aristocracy was in the person of the senate, and democracy - in the person of the people's assembly.

For a better state, Cicero considers it right to establish ancient laws, to revive the "custom of the ancestors" (treatise "On Laws").

Cicero also expresses his protest against tyranny in a number of works in which questions of ethics predominate: such are his treatises “On Friendship”, “On Duties”; in the latter, he condemns Caesar, directly calling him a tyrant. He wrote treatises "On the Limits of Good and Evil", "Tusculan Conversations", "On the Nature of the Gods". Cicero does not reject or approve the existence of the gods, however, he recognizes the need for a state religion; he resolutely rejects all miracles and fortune-telling (treatise "On fortune-telling").

Questions of philosophy had an applied character for Cicero and were considered by him depending on their practical significance in the field of ethics and politics.

Considering the horsemen the "support" of all classes, Cicero did not have a definite political platform. He first sought to win the favor of the people, and then went over to the side of the optimates and recognized the union of horsemen with the nobility and the senate as the state basis.

His political activity can be characterized by the words of his brother Quintus Cicero: “Let you be sure that the Senate regards you according to how you lived before, and looks at you as a defender of his authority, Roman horsemen and rich people on the basis of your past life. they see in you a zealot of order and tranquility, but the majority, since your speeches in courts and at gatherings showed you to be half-hearted, let them think that you will act in his interests.

The first speech that has come down to us (81) “In defense of Quinctius”, about the return of illegally seized property to him, brought success to Cicero. In it, he adhered to the Asian style, in which his rival Hortensius was known. He achieved even greater success with his speech "In defense of Roscius of Ameripsky." Defending Roscius, whom his relatives accused of murdering his own father for selfish purposes, Cicero spoke out against the violence of the Sullan regime, exposing the dark actions of Sulla's favorite, Cornelius Chrysogon, with the help of which the relatives wanted to take possession of the property of the murdered. Cicero won this process and, by his opposition to the aristocracy, gained popularity among the people.

Out of fear of reprisals from Sulla, Cicero went to Athens and to the island of Rhodes, allegedly due to the need to study philosophy and oratory more deeply. There he listened to the rhetorician Apollonius Molon, who influenced Cicero's style. From that time on, Cicero began to adhere to the "middle" style of eloquence, which occupied the middle between the Asian and moderate Attic styles.

A brilliant education, oratorical talent, a successful start to advocacy opened Cicero access to government positions. The reaction against the aristocracy after the death of Sulla in 78 helped him in this. He took the first public office of a quaestor in Western Sicily in 76. Having earned the trust of the Sicilians by his actions, Cicero defended their interests against the governor of Sicily, the propraetor Verres, who, using uncontrolled power, plundered the province. The speeches against Verres were of political importance, since in essence Cicero opposed the oligarchy of the optimates and defeated them, despite the fact that the judges belonged to the senatorial class and the famous Hortensius was the defender of Verres.

In 66 Cicero was elected praetor; he delivers a speech "On the Appointment of Gnaeus Pompey as General" (or "In Defense of the Law of Manilius"). Cicero supported the bill of Manilius to grant unlimited power to fight Mithridates to Gnaeus Pompey, whom he praises immoderately.

This speech, defending the interests of wealthy people and directed against the political order, was a great success. But with this speech ends Cicero's speeches against the Senate and the optimates.

Meanwhile, the Democratic Party intensified its demands for radical reforms (debt cassation, allotment of land to the poor). This met with clear opposition from Cicero, who in his speeches strongly opposed the agrarian bill introduced by the young tribune Rullus to purchase land in Italy and settle it with poor citizens.

When Cicero was elected consul in 63, he reinstated senators and horsemen against agrarian reforms. In the second agrarian speech, Cicero speaks sharply about the representatives of democracy, calling them troublemakers and rebels, threatening that he will make them so meek that they themselves will be surprised. Speaking against the interests of the poor, Cicero stigmatizes their leader Lucius Sergius Catiline, around whom people who suffered from the economic crisis and senatorial tyranny were grouped. Catiline, like Cicero, put forward his candidacy for consulship in 63, but, despite all the efforts of the left wing of the democratic group, to get Catiline consuls, he did not succeed due to the opposition of the optimates. Catiline conspired, the purpose of which was an armed uprising and the assassination of Cicero. The plans of the conspirators became known to Cicero thanks to well-organized espionage.

In his four speeches against Catiline, Cicero ascribes to his adversary all sorts of vices and the most vile aims, such as the desire to set fire to Rome and destroy all honest citizens.

Catiline left Rome and, with a small detachment, surrounded by government troops, died in battle near Pistoria in 62. The leaders of the radical movement were arrested and, after an illegal trial of them, were strangled in prison by order of Cicero.

Crouching before the Senate, Cicero in his speeches carries out the slogan of the union of senators and horsemen.

It goes without saying that the reactionary part of the Senate approved of Cicero's actions to suppress the Catiline conspiracy and bestowed on him the title of "father of the fatherland."

The activities of Catiline are tendentiously covered by the Roman historian Sallust. Meanwhile, Cicero himself, in his speech for Murepa (XXV), cites the following remarkable statement by Catiline: “Only he who is unhappy himself can be a faithful defender of the unfortunate; but believe, afflicted and destitute, in the promises of both the prosperous and the happy... the least timid and the most affected - this is who should be called the leader and standard-bearer of the oppressed.

Cicero's brutal reprisal against the supporters of Catiline caused displeasure, popular. With the formation of the first triumvirate, which included Pompeii, Caesar and Krase, Cicero, at the request of the people's tribune Clodius, was forced to go into exile in 58.

In 57, Cicero returned to Rome again, but no longer had his former political influence and was mainly engaged in literary work.

His speeches in defense of the people's tribune Sestius, in defense of Milop, belong to this time. At the same time, Cicero wrote the famous treatise On the Orator. As proconsul in Cilicia, in Asia Minor (51-50), Cicero gained popularity among the army, especially due to the victory over several mountain tribes. The soldiers proclaimed him emperor (the highest military commander). Upon returning to Rome at the end of 50, Cicero joined Pompey, but after his defeat at Pharsalus (48), he refused to participate in the struggle and outwardly reconciled with Caesar. He took up the issues of oratory, publishing the treatises Orator, Brutus, and popularizing Greek philosophy in the field of practical morality.

After the assassination of Caesar by Brutus (44), Cicero again returned to the ranks of active figures, speaking on the side of the Senate party, supporting Octavian in the fight against Antony. With great sharpness and passion, he wrote 14 speeches against Antony, which, in imitation of Demosthenes, are called "Philippines". For them, he was included in the proscription list and in 43 BC. e. killed.

Cicero left works on the theory and history of eloquence, philosophical treatises, 774 letters and 58 judicial and political speeches. Among them, as an expression of Cicero's views on poetry, a special place is occupied by a speech in defense of the Greek poet Archius, who appropriated Roman citizenship. Having glorified Archius as a poet, Cicero recognizes the harmonious combination of natural talent and assiduous, patient work.

The literary heritage of Cicero not only gives a clear idea of ​​his life and work, often not always principled and full of compromises, but also paints historical pictures of the turbulent era of the civil war in Rome.

The language and style of Cicero's speeches. For a political and especially a judicial orator, it was important not so much to truthfully illuminate the essence of the case, but to present it in such a way that the judges and the public surrounding the judicial tribunal would believe in its truth. The attitude of the public to the speaker's speech was considered, as it were, the voice of the people and could not but put pressure on the decision of the judges. Therefore, the outcome of the case depended almost exclusively on the skill of the orator. Cicero's speeches, although they were built according to the scheme of traditional ancient rhetoric, give an idea of ​​the methods by which he achieved success.

Cicero himself notes in his speeches "an abundance of thoughts and words", in most cases stemming from the speaker's desire to divert the attention of judges from unfavorable facts, to focus it only on circumstances useful for the success of the case, to give them the necessary coverage. In this regard, the story was important for the trial, which was supported by tendentious argumentation, often a distortion of witness testimony. Dramatic epidoses were woven into the story, images that give speeches an artistic form.

In a speech against Verres, Cicero talks about the execution of the Roman citizen Gavia, whom they did not have the right to punish without trial. He was flogged on the square with rods, and he, without uttering a single groan, only repeated: "I am a Roman citizen!" Indignant at arbitrariness, Cicero exclaims: “O sweet name of freedom! O exclusive right connected with our citizenship! Oh, the power of the tribunes, which the Roman plebes so strongly desired and which was finally returned to him! These pathetic exclamations intensified the drama of the story.

Cicero uses this technique of varying style, but rarely. The pathetic tone is replaced by a simple one, the seriousness of the presentation is replaced by a joke, a mockery.

Recognizing that "the speaker should exaggerate the fact," Cicero in his speeches considers amplification, a method of exaggeration, to be natural. So, in a speech against Catiline, Cicero claims that Catiline was going to set fire to Rome from 12 sides and, patronizing the bandits, destroy all honest people. Cicero did not shy away from theatrical techniques, which caused his opponents to accuse him of insincerity, of false tearfulness. Wanting to arouse pity for the accused in a speech in defense of Milo, he himself says that “he cannot speak from tears,” and in another case (a speech in defense of Flaccus) he picked up the child, the son of Flaccus, and with tears asked the judges to spare his father .

The use of these techniques in accordance with the content of speeches creates a special oratorical style. The liveliness of his speech is acquired through the use of a common language, the absence of archaisms and the rare use of Greek words. Sometimes speech consists of short simple sentences, sometimes they are replaced by exclamations, rhetorical questions and long periods, in the construction of which Cicero followed Demosthenes. They are divided into parts, usually having a metric form and a sonorous end of the period. This gives the impression of rhythmic prose.

Rhetorical works. In theoretical works on eloquence, Cicero summarized the principles, rules and techniques that he followed in his practical activities. His treatises “On the Orator” (55), “Brutus” (46) and “The Orator” (46) are known.

The work "On the Orator" in three books is a dialogue between two famous speakers, the predecessors of Cicero, Licinnes Crassus and Mark Antony, representatives of the Senate party. Cicero expresses his views through the mouth of Crassus, who believes that only a versatile educated person can be an orator. In such an orator, Cicero sees a politician, the savior of the state in an alarming time of civil wars.

In the same treatise, Cicero deals with the construction and content of speech, its design. A prominent place is given to the language, rhythm and periodicity of speech, its pronunciation, and Cicero refers to the performance of an actor who, through facial expressions and gestures, achieves an impact on the soul of the listeners.

In the treatise Brutus, dedicated to his friend Brutus, Cicero speaks of the history of Greek and Roman eloquence, dwelling on the latter in more detail. The content of this work is revealed in its other name - "On famous speakers." This treatise received great importance in the Renaissance. Its purpose is to prove the superiority of Roman orators over Greek ones.

Cicero believes that the simplicity of the Greek orator Lysias alone is not enough - this simplicity must be supplemented by the sublimity and power of expression of Demosthenes. Characterizing many orators, he considers himself an outstanding Roman orator.

Finally, in the treatise Orator, Cicero expresses his opinion on the use of different styles depending on the content of speech, in order to convince listeners, to impress the grace and beauty of speech, and, finally, to captivate and excite sublimity. Much attention is paid to the periodization of speech, the theory of rhythm is described in detail, especially in the endings of the members of the period.

The works of the orator that have come down to us are of exceptional historical and cultural value. Already in the Middle Ages, and especially in the Renaissance, experts were interested in the rhetorical and philosophical writings of Cicero, and through the latter they got acquainted with the Greek philosophical schools. Humanists especially valued Cicero's style.

A brilliant stylist, able to express the slightest shades of thought, Cicero was the creator of that elegant literary language, which was considered a model of Latin prose. During the Enlightenment, the rationalistic philosophical views of Cicero influenced Voltaire and Montesquieu, who wrote the treatise The Spirit of the Laws.