Types of psychological influence. Psychological means of influence Multimodal gestalts and their symbolic meaning

As we have already said, manipulation is, first of all, hidden ways to control others. However, very often any psychological impact is declared manipulation. That this is not the case can be verified by considering the list of different types psychological influence.

Belief. Conscious reasoned influence on another person or group of people, with the aim of forming or changing a judgment, attitude, intention or decision.

Self-promotion. Announcing your goals and presenting evidence of your competence and qualifications in order to be appreciated and thereby gain advantages in a situation of choice by others, appointment to a position, etc.

Suggestion. Conscious unreasoned influence on a person or a group of people, aimed at changing their state, attitude towards something and predisposition to certain actions.

Infection. The transfer of one's state or attitude to another person or group of people who somehow (not yet found an explanation) adopt this state or attitude. This state can be transmitted both involuntarily and arbitrarily; to be assimilated - also involuntarily or voluntarily.

Awakening the impulse to imitate. The ability to arouse the desire to be like oneself. This ability can be both involuntary manifested and arbitrarily used. The desire to imitate and imitation (copying someone else's behavior and way of thinking) can also be arbitrary or involuntary.

Favor formation. Attracting the involuntary attention of the addressee to oneself by the initiator showing his own originality and attractiveness, expressing favorable judgments about the addressee, imitating him or rendering him a service.

Request. Appeal to the addressee with an appeal to satisfy the needs or desires of the initiator of the impact.

Compulsion. The threat of the initiator using its control capabilities in order to achieve the desired behavior from the addressee. Controlling capabilities are the powers to deprive the addressee of any benefits or to change the conditions of his life and work. In the most rude forms of coercion, threats of physical violence, restrictions on freedom can be used. Subjectively, coercion is experienced as pressure: by the initiator - as their own pressure, by the addressee - as pressure from the initiator or "circumstances".

Attack. A sudden attack on someone else's psyche, conscious or impulsive, and is a form of emotional stress relief. Making disparaging or offensive judgments about a person's personality and / or grossly aggressive condemnation, defamation or ridicule of his deeds and actions. The main forms of attack are destructive criticism, destructive statements, destructive advice.

Manipulation. The hidden motivation of the addressee to experience certain states, make decisions and / or perform actions necessary for the initiator to achieve his own goals.

Destructive criticism

Disparaging or offensive judgments about a person's personality.

Rough aggressive condemnation, defamation or ridicule of his deeds and deeds, significant people for him, social communities, ideas, values, works, material / cultural objects, etc.

Rhetorical questions aimed at discovering and “correcting” shortcomings.

The destructiveness of such criticism lies in the fact that it does not allow a person to “save face”, diverts his strength to fight the negative emotions that have arisen, and takes away his faith in himself.

Differences between destructive criticism and suggestion:

1. With suggestion, the conscious goal is to "improve" the behavior of another (unconscious - liberation from annoyance and anger, a manifestation of strength or revenge). But at the same time, the behavior patterns that are described in the suggestion formulas “You are a frivolous person! It's time for you to take life seriously!"

2. Destructive criticism reinforces a negative pattern of behavior.

Destructive statements

Mentions and reminders of objective facts of a biography that a person is not able to change and which he most often could not influence (national, social, racial origin; urban or rural origin; occupation of parents; illegal behavior of someone close, their alcoholism or drug addiction in the family; hereditary and chronic diseases; natural constitution: height, facial features, myopia, impaired vision, hearing, speech, etc.).

The effect of such statements is that the addressee of the impact causes a state of confusion, helplessness, confusion, etc.

Destructive advice

Peremptory directions, commands and instructions that are not implied by social or working relationships with a partner.

Types of resistance to influence

Counterargument. Conscious reasoned response to an attempt to persuade, refuting or challenging the arguments of the initiator of the impact.

Psychological self-defense. The use of speech formulas and intonation means that allow you to maintain your presence of mind and gain time to think about next steps in a situation of destructive criticism, coercion or manipulation.

Information dialogue. Clarification of the partner's position and one's own position through the exchange of questions and answers, messages and proposals.

Constructive criticism. Fact-supported discussion of the goals, means or actions of the initiator of the impact and justification of their inconsistency with the goals, conditions and requirements of the addressee.

Energy mobilization. The resistance of the addressee to attempts to instill or convey to him a certain state, attitude, intention or course of action.

Creation. The creation of a new, neglecting the influence of a pattern, example or fashion, or overcoming it.

Evasion. The desire to avoid any form of interaction with the initiator of the impact, including random personal meetings and clashes.

Ignoring. Actions indicating that the addressee deliberately does not notice or does not take into account the words, actions or feelings expressed by the addressee.

Confrontation. Open and consistent opposition by the addressee of his position and his requirements to the initiator of the impact.

Refusal. Expression by the addressee of his disagreement to fulfill the request of the initiator of the impact.

Forms of attack:

1. Destructive criticism

It's hard for you to do things like that.

No one else could have done this job so badly except you.

Everything you touch turns to nothing.

Your passion for cheap things amazes me.

You always surround yourself with suspicious people.

Your children have always been distinguished by bad manners.

You don't have friends, but a sect/community of some failed personalities/losers/unrecognized geniuses.

At your age - and such a craving for melodrama!

How can you dress so ridiculously?

Doesn't it occur to you that this is nonsense?

Have you completely lost your mind?

How can you use such a terrible deodorant?

Forms of attack:

2. Destructive statements

Well, yes, you're from a small town.

You are only an intellectual in the first (second) generation...

You said that there are other deviations in your family.

In past years, you would have been considered a nationalist, then you would have additional advantages.

I remember that the university you graduated from is not the most prestigious.

When you behave like this, I remember your brother - a drug addict (who ended up in places not so remote ...).

This costume hides the disproportion of your figure.

You can't see, probably because of poor eyesight.

You have irresponsibly overlooked such violations before.

Remember, you had problems with reporting back then.

I often remember how we all had to tinker to correct your mistake.

I will never forget how drunk you were then.

It's good that your wife doesn't know what you had with Marina.

Forms of attack:

3. Destructive advice

You had better…

Would you do more...

And why don't you...

In your place, I...

You must definitely…

Doesn't work in your position...

It's time for you to learn...

We must work on ourselves!

Go and say that...

Don't ever do this again!

Sorry!

Don't you dare talk about it in my (his, her) presence anymore.

Know your place henceforth.

Remember for the future that this does not concern you.

Appendix 6. Diagnostics and self-diagnosis of the state of subpersonality

Before you get acquainted with the description of E. Burns, I want to recall the key settings for each state: Parent - MUST, Adult - I CAN, Child - I WANT.

Behavior. With respect to unshakable paternal firmness, often accompanied by a gesture of the index finger or maternal graceful movement of the neck, their relation to Parental attitudes quickly becomes apparent. Contemplative concentration, accompanied by pursed lips or slightly flared nostrils, is a typical Adult. Head tilts, signifying modesty and accompanied by a smile, turning into coquettishness, are manifestations of the Child. Childish expressions of disgust and frowned eyebrows when a person is pouting, which can turn into forced and annoyed laughter with Parental teasing, are childish. watching family relationships parents, schoolchildren, and young children, one can find other characteristic attitudes inherent in each type of ego state. An interesting and instructive exercise will be to work with the text and especially the photo-engravings of Darwin's book on the expression of emotions, keeping in mind the structural analysis.

Gestures. The exteropsychic origin of the forbidding gesture can be established by finding its prototype in one of the parental figures in the patient's history. The pointing gesture, while autonomous, can be considered an Adult when a professional communicates with a colleague or client, a foreman instructs a worker, or a teacher guides a student. Protective gestures that are inappropriate from a pragmatic point of view are manifestations of the Child. Options that are not so rich in shades can be easily diagnosed intuitively. For example, a pointing gesture may be accompanied by instructions from the Parent or a plaintive accusation on the part of the Child, as if appealing to the Parent figure.

Voice. It is not uncommon for people to have two voices, each with their own intonations, although in a therapist's office or in a group one of these voices may be suppressed for a long time. For example, someone who introduces himself in a group as "I'm such a poor thing" may not detect the latent voice of the Parent full of rage (for example, the voice of an alcoholic mother) for many months; or it may be necessary to go through a lot of stress in the group so that the voice of the "reasonable worker" is lost, replaced by the voice of a frightened Child. Meanwhile, relatives of the patient can simply get used to the intonational dichotomy. In addition, it is not at all an exception - people who have three different voices. So, in a group, the voices of the Parent, Adult and Child, all belonging to one person, can literally collide. When the voice changes, it is usually easy to find other evidence of a change in ego state. The most dramatic illustration will be the moment when "I am poor thing" is suddenly replaced by a copy (facsimile) of her angry mother or grandmother.

Vocabulary. Typical Parent words are: "smart", "son", "spoiled", "ill-mannered", "disgusting", "outrageous", and their synonyms. Adult words: "unconstructive", "corresponding", "economical", "suitable". Curses, curses and all sorts of epithets are usually manifestations of the Child. Nouns and verbs are characteristic of the Adult when used to describe reality without exaggeration, distortion or prejudice, but the Parent or Child can also use them for their own purposes.

Simple and useful exercise intuition can be diagnosed with the word "good" (good). Capitalized as it were, this word is Parental. An adult resorts to it when its use is objectively justified. If it implies instinctive satisfaction and is essentially an exclamation, it is characteristic of the Child, being in this case a cultivated synonym for something like "yum-yum" or "mmm!"

Parent: Controlling and Caring. Child: Adapted and Natural. And he is an adult - an adult.

Appendix 7. Beliefs

Beliefs are closely related generalizations about:

causal relationship;

values;

borders (restrictions);

the surrounding world;

our behavior

our capabilities;

our identification.

Beliefs can be both motivating and limiting.

Limiting beliefs are of the following types:

· senselessness- it is impossible to understand and evaluate the incoming information about the meaning, reason and purpose. I don’t know WHY (motivation blocking)! "What is this all for? What's the point of this?"

· Hopelessness: the desired goal is unattainable, regardless of my abilities - it's impossible(action blocking). Do not know how! “I don’t believe that this is in principle possible!”, “Whatever I do, I still want the impossible. It's not in my power. I am a victim."

· Helplessness: the desired goal is achievable, but I'm not capable achieve it (blocking skills and abilities). I know HOW, but I can't! "Maybe it's possible, but not with my talents." “Anyone but me can achieve this goal. I'm too bad or weak to get what I want."

· Worthlessness : I'm not worthy, I do not deserve the desired goal because of my own qualities, behavior (understatement of self-identification). I know HOW, but I'm not worthy! “It's possible, I'm capable of it, but I'm empty, an extra person. Nobody needs me. I don't deserve happiness and health. There is something fundamentally wrong with me, and I deserve both the pain and anguish that I experience.”

Lack of expectation of the result leads to Hopelessness, a person gives up, apathy sets in.

Lack of expectation of self-efficacy leads to inadequacy, Helplessness.

Worthlessness - negative self-identification: “I do not deserve success! If I get what I want, I'll lose something."

The next important feature of interpersonal communication is the phenomena of interpersonal (psychological) influence. In the work of E. V. Sidorenko it is indicated that psychological impact – this is an impact on the state, thoughts, feelings and actions of another person with the help of exclusively psychological means, with the provision of the right and time to respond to this impact. At the same time, allocate initiator of influence(the one who first tries to influence) and addressee of influence(the one to whom this attempt is addressed). There are a large number of types of psychological influence (Table 2.6).

Table 2.6

Types of psychological influence

Name		Description of influence
Belief		Conscious reasoned influence on another person (or group of people) in order to change their judgment, intention or decision. At the same time, the initiator clearly defines the purpose of persuasion and sends it to the addressee.
self-promotion		Announcing your goals and presenting evidence of your competence and qualifications in order to be appreciated. Justified when appointed to a new position and in an election situation, etc.
Suggestion	Conscious or unconscious unreasoned impact on another person (or group of people) in order to change their states, attitudes towards something and predisposition to certain actions
Infection	Transfer of one's state or attitude to another person (or group of people) who (in the process of interaction) adopt this state or attitude
	The ability to cause the desire to be like oneself. This ability can manifest itself unconsciously and be used for a specific purpose (arbitrarily)
Formation favors	Attracting the involuntary attention of the addressee to oneself by the initiator showing his own originality and attractiveness, making flattering judgments about the addressee, rendering him a service, etc.
	Appeal to the addressee with an appeal to satisfy the needs or desires of the initiator of the impact
Compulsion	The threat of using controlling (provoking) opportunities to get the desired behavior from the addressee. Wherein controlling capabilities- this is the authority to deprive the addressee of any benefits or change the conditions of his life and work, etc.
destructive	Making disparaging or insulting judgments about a person's personality, also a rude aggressive judgment, defamation or ridicule of his deeds and actions. This criticism does not allow a person to "save face", directs his strength mainly to fight negative emotions, a person loses faith in himself
Manipulation	Hidden motivation of the addressee to experience certain states, make decisions and perform actions necessary for the initiator to achieve his own goals

According to E. V. Sidorenko, this classification meets the requirements of the phenomenology of the experience of influence by both parties. Thus, the experience of destructive criticism is qualitatively different from the experience of persuasion. The subject of destructive criticism is the recipient of the influence himself, the subject of persuasion is something more distant from him, not so painfully perceived (the mistake he made, and not himself).

The researchers note that the result of the impact depends on the chosen methods or strategies. So, if we need a momentary result, then we choose a method that does not require long explanations and reasoning. On the contrary, if we are interested in the prospect of communication, we choose a softer method that allows the subject of our influence to be included in this process himself.

AT domestic psychology At the heart of typologies of strategies for influencing a person, it is customary to consider the attitude to a communication partner as a subject or as an object of interaction. According to the classification of G. A. Kovalev, in real life a person demonstrates the following three main strategies: imperative, manipulative and developing.

• 1. imperative strategy involves considering a person as a passive object of influence of external conditions (or as a product of these conditions). This strategy impact does not affect the deep structures of a person's mental organization, therefore it is mainly used and appropriate in extreme situations during operational decision-making, as well as in the regulation of hierarchical relations in systems of a "closed" type.
• 2. When manipulative strategy, the person himself has a transformative effect on psychological information. This strategy is implemented using subconscious stimulation techniques (bypassing mental control), blocking the system of psychological defenses, which contributes to the formation of a new model of the world (spatio-temporal organization).
• 3. When using developing strategy activates the potential for self-development of the individual. This strategy is implemented through dialogue and mutual openness, which contributes to the formation of a certain common space and the creation of a single "event" in which the impact ceases to exist, and the interaction of systems begins.

Resisting other people's influence - this is resistance to the influence of another person with the help of psychological means (Table 2.7).

In addition to the listed types of influence, there is a classification of psychological constructive and non-constructive types of influence, which is built on the basis of the effectiveness of the method of resistance to a certain type of influence (Table 2.8).

Table 2.7

Types of psychological resistance to influence

Name	Description of the confrontation
counterargue mentation	Conscious reasoned response to an attempt to persuade, refuting or challenging the arguments of the initiator of the impact
Constructive criticism	Fact-supported discussion of the goals, means or actions of the initiator of the impact and justification of their inconsistency with the goals, conditions and requirements of the addressee
Energy mobilization	Resistance to attempts by the addressee to instill or convey to him a certain state, attitude, intention or course of action
Creation	Creation of something new, different from the pattern, example or fashion, or overcoming their influence
Evasion	The desire to avoid any form of interaction with the initiator of the impact, including random personal meetings and collisions
Psychological self-defense	The use of speech formulas and intonational means that allow you to maintain your presence of mind and gain time to think about next steps in a situation of destructive criticism, manipulation or coercion
ignorirova	Actions indicating that the addressee deliberately does not notice or does not take into account the words, actions or feelings expressed by the addressee
Confrontation	Open and consistent opposition by the addressee of his position and his requirements to the initiator of the impact. In a situation of confrontation, it is necessary to consistently implement the following phases (if the influence does not stop): 1) I-message about the feelings caused by the initiator; 2) strengthening the I-message; 3) expression of wishes or requests; 4) imposition of sanctions; 5) implementation of sanctions
	Expression by the addressee of his disagreement to fulfill the request of the initiator of the impact

Psychologically constructive influence associated with three main criteria:

• 1) it does not destroy the personality of the people participating in it and their relationships;
• 2) it is psychologically correct (competent and unmistakable);
• 3) it satisfies the needs of both parties.

The above criteria are also psychologically constructive resistance to influence.

Table 2.8

Classification of types of influence and opposition to influence on the basis of psychological constructiveness-non-constructiveness

Type of influence	Characteristics of constructiveness - non-constructiveness	Constructive types of counter-influence	Non-constructive types of counter-influence
Belief	Constructive type of influence: the purpose of the influence is clearly and openly communicated to the partner	Counterargument	Manipulation and coercion
Self promotion	Constructive type of influence: deceptive tricks are not used, true goals and requests are revealed	Constructive criticism and rejection	Ignoring, destructive criticism
Suggestion	The controversial type of constructive influence is always penetration through the "back door"
Infection	A controversial type of influence - no one can determine how useful it is for the addressee to "infect" with this particular feeling or state and right now	Constructive criticism, energy mobilization and avoidance	Ignoring, destructive criticism, manipulation, coercion
Awakening the impulse to imitate	Controversial type of influence; acceptable in the upbringing of children and in the transfer of skills from a professional to a young specialist	Constructive criticism, creativity, avoidance	Ignoring, destructive criticism
Favor formation	A controversial type of influence - flattery, imitation (as the highest form of flattery) and service to the addressee can be manipulation	Constructive criticism, energy mobilization, avoidance	Ignoring, destructive criticism
	Controversial type of influence: in Russian culture it is considered destructive for the one who asks, in American culture it is considered justified	Refusal, evasion	Ignoring, destructive criticism
Compulsion	Controversial type of suggestion; constructive in some pedagogical, political systems and in emergency situations	Confrontation, psychological self-defense	Reciprocal coercion, manipulation, ignoring, destructive criticism
Destructive criticism	Non-constructive kind of influence	Psychological self-defense, evasion	Retaliatory destructive criticism, manipulation, coercion, ignoring
Manipulation	Non-constructive kind of influence	Constructive criticism, confrontation, psychological self-defense	Counter manipulation, destructive criticism

The work of E. V. Sidorenko indicates that in reality, influence and opposition to influence are two sides of a single process of interaction, therefore, it is worth talking about mutual psychological influence. The influence will be psychologically correct (competent) if: a) the psychological characteristics of the partner and the current situation are taken into account; b) the "correct" psychological methods of influence are applied. In this case, the addressee has two ways: 1) to succumb to influence; 2) constructively confront him in correct psychological ways. It is worth remembering that the ability to succumb to constructive influence is not a sign of weakness and lack of will (as is often assumed in our country), but a sign of the predominance of a task orientation over a momentary desire to confirm one's own significance (an important property for leaders).

In a situation where the influence does not match norms of psychological constructiveness, the addressee will have only one way - to resist him in psychologically constructive ways. AT this case refusing to resist is equated with the person's consent to the fact that his personality will be damaged. Opposition using non-constructive methods will damage the addressee or their relationship

Types of influence

According to Sidorenko E.V. [p. 24, 20], psychological means of influence can be verbal, non-verbal and paralinguistic. Verbal means - words, first of all, their meaning, as well as the nature of the words used, the selection of expressions, the correctness of speech or different types her wrongness. Non-verbal means - the relative position of the interlocutors in space, postures, gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, smells, touch, appearance. Paralinguistic (near-verbal) means of influence - features of speech pronunciation.

Psychological influence is barbaric and civilized.

Barbaric influence - influence that does not comply with the rules of etiquette and ethical standards adopted by the subject himself.

Civilized influence is influence that is both correctly performed and noble, worthy of a person. It requires a certain level of psychological culture, in which a person becomes ennobled by civilization, and not a barbarian.

Civilized psychological influence is influence, first of all, by the word, and the influence is open and openly addressed to the intellectual capabilities of a person. It contributes to the development and preservation of the business, business relations, personal integrity of the participants. Civilized psychological influence is free from coercion and deception. It is devoid of emotional outbursts, excitement and fear, but in parallel with this - and the happiness of unpredictable human communication, trembling with emotions. In any case, it is useful to have the possibilities of civilized interaction and apply them where it is justified.

Types of civilized influence (according to Sidorenko E.V.): argumentation, self-promotion, manipulation, suggestion, infection, inducing an impulse to imitate, formation of favor, request, ignoring, coercion, attack, destructive criticism.

Argumentation - the statement and discussion of arguments in favor of a certain decision or position in order to form or change the interlocutor's attitude to this decision. For an argument to be truly constructive, it must meet certain conditions.

Firstly, the purpose of the argument must be clearly understood by the initiator of influence and openly formulated to the addressee, for example: “I would like to prove to you the advantages of the method of strengthening the powers of subordinates” or “Let me prove to you that it is not advisable to hire this person for us.”

In those cases when we start the argument without realizing our own goal and / or without informing the addressee, he may perceive our influence as manipulative.

Secondly, before attempting an argument, it is necessary to obtain the consent of the addressee to listen to us. For example, if our question is: “Do you agree to listen to my arguments?” he replies, “Come on in an hour, okay? And now my head is busy with something else, ”then further continuation of the argument directly at this moment will be perceived by him as coercion.

At the same time, the answer "later", if it is repeated systematically, may indicate attempts to ignore. In this case, it is necessary to first resist ignoring, and then, if successful, move on to argumentation. The problem is that argumentation is a constructive, but energetically not always powerful enough way to influence. It requires "emotional calm" and spiritual clarity. This often requires a lot of upfront work. An important point of switching here is the concentration not so much on the logic of constructing your own proof, but on the psychology of interaction with the addressee. It is impossible to be convincing at all, objectively. You can be persuasive for someone in particular. Persuasiveness is something that arises in the process of interaction.

1.1. General rules

I. Politeness and correctness. With any answers from the partner, the argumentator must remain polite. Statements that belittle the personality of a communication partner are unacceptable. Even if the initiator is amused by the extent to which his partner is incomprehensible, he should refrain from irony and sarcasm. Statements like: “I thought you were good at school” or “You will probably have to think about this for a long time, it doesn’t work out quickly” are, in essence, manipulative statements, “tweezers” that violate the emotional calm of discussing the problem.

II. Simplicity. All statements should be simple, understandable, not contain pretentious expressions and rarely used or special terms. For example, the wording is hardly successful: “Let's approach the problem ontologically, leaving aside its etiological aspect for now” or “Prosodic characteristics of speech come into conflict with such manifestations as kinesics and takesics.” Instead of them, it is better to use others, respectively: “Let's solve the problem on the merits, now it’s not so important how it arose” and “This person’s intonations are affectionate, and his gestures are sharp and sweeping, he continually touches his partner with his hands.”

III. Mutual language. In argumentation, it is important to use not the language that seems simple, but the one that is understandable to both sides. In some cases, it is allowed to speak the language of the partner, even if it is somewhat "reduced" compared to the usual language of the argumentative. This does not mean that it is necessary to “descend” to turns of speech, although understandable and expressive, but contrary to generally accepted norms of the language. The line here is sometimes elusive.

IV. brevity. To keep the listener's attention, speech should be as short as possible. Forcing yourself to listen almost always means committing violence against another person. Such violence is the more painful, the longer the speech. Brevity is one of the expressions of politeness and respect for the interlocutor.

V. Visibility. When proving your idea, it is useful to use visual aids that help to realize the advantages of not only abstract-logical, but also figurative and visual-practical thinking.

Visual aids may include:

drawings, graphics;

items, product samples, etc.;

figurative comparisons.

All these means should be understandable, accessible for examination, imagination, and, if possible, for palpation. Interactive means can also be used in which a person himself performs specific actions that lead to certain consequences. Thus, a person gets the opportunity to experience the validity of the arguments.

VI. Avoid being overly persuasive. Often, the argumentator cannot overcome the temptation to directly point out to the addressee the error in his reasoning: “Well, now you see where you made a mistake?” Being overly persuasive challenges your sense of self-worth and therefore elicits a defensive response in the form of resistance.

Another variant of excessive persuasiveness is an excessive number of arguments. Excessive evidence is suspicious. “I'm not going to redo the instructions right now because I don't want to limit employees to being overly regimented. Besides, I don't have time for this."

1.2. Argumentation Techniques

I. Method of positive answers of Socrates. Consistent proof of the solution proposed by the initiator of a problem or task.

Each step of the proof begins with the words: "Do you agree that ..." If the addressee answers in the affirmative, this step can be considered completed and proceed to the next one. If the partner answers in the negative, the initiator continues with the words: “Sorry, I did not formulate the question quite well. Do you agree that...” and so on until the addressee agrees with all the steps of the proof and with the proposed solution as a whole.

Note. Asking questions other than "Do you agree..." is not recommended. Especially dangerous are the questions: “Why don’t you agree?” or "Why do you object to the obvious?"

II. Method of two-sided argumentation. Open presentation of both strong and weaknesses of the proposed solution, making it clear to the addressee that the initiator of influence himself sees the limitations of this solution.

Giving the addressee the opportunity to weigh the arguments "for" and "against".

2. Counterargument

In fact, counter-argumentation is more common than argumentation, especially if the discussion of the topic takes not 15 minutes, but several hours, days or even months.

2.1. Counterargument Techniques

I. The method of rewriting the partner's arguments. Tracking the progress of the solution of the problem or task proposed by the partner, together with him until a contradiction is found, indicating the validity of the opposite conclusions. It is recommended to carefully adhere to the logic of someone else's solution, instead of offering your own.

Option A. Listening to the partner's evidence.

Option B: Play aloud the evidence that the partner offered.

Option B: Tracing the logic of the partner's proof using visual aids.

II. Argumentation expansion method. Presenting a partner with new, previously unknown arguments. It can be used only after work has been done with the partner's already presented arguments, otherwise the new arguments simply will not be heard.

III. Argument separation method. Separation of the initiator's arguments into correct, doubtful and erroneous ones and discussing them according to the formula:

“Actually, I’m already less sure that ...” or “I can’t get rid of some doubt that ...” or “I would like it to be so, but my experience says that not always ... (a dubious argument is reproduced below). Such a beginning helps the partner feel that in principle you are ready and agree with him. Expressing doubt helps your partner feel that you are ready to soberly and honestly weigh all the arguments.

The work done in steps 1 and 2 helps your partner emotionally come to terms with your disagreement in step 3 and rationally evaluate your counterarguments and evidence.

3. Self-promotion

Self-promotion is the open presentation of evidence of one’s competence and qualifications in order to be appreciated and thereby gain advantages in the selection of candidates, appointments, etc. Self-presentation is the management of the impression that the initiator makes on the target person in order to maintain or increase its influence on it.

According to E. Jones, self-promotion is a manifestation of one's competence in preparing, conducting and, possibly, commenting on one's presentation. Self-promotion is different from all other self-presentation strategies because it can be impeccably civilized while all others are controversial.

3.1. General rules for self-promotion

Rule 1. Almost every action we take has a self-presenting value.

Rule 2. "Random" signals may be more important than intentional.

If you can't confirm your possibilities with real actions, then at least don't refute them with your own actions. Self-promotion differs from self-praise in that the initiator of influence does not simply assert something about himself, but backs it up with real deeds or indisputable facts, evidence of these real deeds.

3.2. Self-promotion techniques

A real demonstration of their capabilities.

Presentation of certificates, diplomas, official reviews, patents, printed works, products, etc.

Presentation of graphs, calculations, schemes.

Revealing your personal goals.

Formulation of your requests and conditions.

A self-promotion strategy is the more difficult the more a person could reasonably use it.

The paradox of self-promotion. Truly competent people are characterized by a reduced need to claim competence.

Self-promotion, as well as argumentation, has little internal energy, and therefore needs to be specially developed and strengthened. In addition to energy, self-promotion requires the ability to show one's competence and, therefore, to know and remember what this competence is. Meanwhile, "an intelligent person does not notice his mind, just as a person who is used to dressing well does not notice his suit" (Bernard Shaw).

In essence, self-promotion is also an argument. This is a demonstration of facts that are perceived as arguments.

Belief . Conscious reasoned influence on another person or group of people, with the aim of forming or changing a judgment, attitude, intention or decision.

Self-promotion. Announcing your goals and presenting evidence of your competence and qualifications in order to be appreciated and thereby gain advantages in a situation of choice by others, appointment to a position, etc.

Suggestion. Conscious unreasoned influence on a person or a group of people, aimed at changing their state, attitude towards something and predisposition to certain actions.

Infection. The transfer of one's state or attitude to another person or group of people who somehow (not yet found an explanation) adopt this state or attitude. This state can be transmitted both involuntarily and arbitrarily; to be assimilated - also involuntarily or voluntarily.

Awakening the impulse to imitate. The ability to arouse the desire to be like oneself. This ability can be both involuntary manifested and arbitrarily used. The desire to imitate and imitation (copying someone else's behavior and way of thinking) can also be arbitrary or involuntary.

Favor formation. Attracting the involuntary attention of the addressee to oneself by the initiator showing his own originality and attractiveness, expressing favorable judgments about the addressee, imitating him or rendering him a service.

Request. Appeal to the addressee with an appeal to satisfy the needs or desires of the initiator of the impact.

Compulsion. The threat of the initiator using its control capabilities in order to achieve the desired behavior from the addressee. Controlling capabilities are the powers to deprive the addressee of any benefits or to change the conditions of his life and work. In the most rude forms of coercion, threats of physical violence, restrictions on freedom can be used. Subjectively, coercion is experienced as pressure: by the initiator - as their own pressure, by the addressee - as pressure from the initiator or "circumstances".

Attack. A sudden attack on someone else's psyche, conscious or impulsive, and is a form of emotional stress relief. Making disparaging or offensive judgments about a person's personality and / or grossly aggressive condemnation, defamation or ridicule of his deeds and actions. The main forms of attack are destructive criticism, destructive statements, destructive advice.

Manipulation. The hidden motivation of the addressee to experience certain states, make decisions and / or perform actions necessary for the initiator to achieve his own goals.

Destructive criticism:

Disparaging or offensive judgments about a person's personality.

Rough, aggressive condemnation, defamation or ridicule of his deeds and deeds, significant people for him, social communities, ideas, values, works, material / cultural objects, etc.

Rhetorical questions aimed at discovering and “correcting” shortcomings.

The destructiveness of such criticism is that it does not allow a person to "save face", diverts his strength to fight the negative emotions that have arisen, and takes away his faith in himself.

The difference between destructive criticism and suggestion lies in the fact that when suggesting, the conscious goal is to "improve" the behavior of another (unconscious - liberation from annoyance and anger, a manifestation of strength or revenge). But at the same time, the behavior patterns that are described in the suggestion formulas are not fixed (!) “You are a frivolous person! It's time for you to take life seriously!"

Destructive criticism reinforces a negative pattern of behavior.

Destructive statements are one of the varieties of destructive criticism:

Mentions and reminders of objective facts of a biography that a person is not able to change and which he most often could not influence (national, social, racial origin; urban or rural origin; occupation of parents; illegal behavior of someone close, their alcoholism or drug addiction in the family; hereditary and chronic diseases; natural constitution: height, facial features, myopia, impaired vision, hearing, speech, etc.

The effect of such statements is that the recipient of the impact causes a state of confusion, helplessness, confusion, etc.

Peremptory directions, commands and instructions that are not implied by social or working relationships with a partner.

According to Krysko VG, the psychological impact is divided into the following types: psychogenic, information-psychological, psychoanalytic, neurolinguistic, psychotronic and psychotropic.

Psychogenic impact is a consequence caused by:

The shock influence of the conditions of social life and activity or some tragic events on the consciousness of people or their groups, as a result of which they are unable to think and act rationally, lose their normal orientation in space and the social environment, experience states of affect, depression or fear. They fall into a panic, into a stupor, etc.

Physical impact on the human brain, as a result of which there is a violation of its normal neuropsychic activity.

A particular, but very indicative case of psychogenic influence is the influence of color on the psycho-physiological and emotional states of labor.

Information-psychological influence (or ideological) - influence with the help of words, information in general. The main goal is the formation of certain ideological or social ideas, views, and beliefs.

Psychoanalytic influence - influence on the subconscious of a person by therapeutic means, especially in a state of hypnosis or deep sleep. There are also methods that eliminate the conscious resistance of both an individual and groups of people in the waking state.

Neuro-Linguistic Impact (NLP) - Kind psychological impact, which changes the motivation of people by artificially introducing special linguistic programs into their consciousness, initiating their certain thinking, perception and behavior.

Psychotronic influence (parapsychological, extrasensory) - the influence of other people, carried out by transmitting information through extrasensory (unconscious) perception. For example, the effect caused by color spots embedded in a computer virus, designated V - 666. The virus can negatively affect the psycho-physiological state of the PC operator (up to death). The principle of its operation is based on the “phenomenon of the 25th frame”, the content of which is laid upon perception on the subconscious level of the psyche.

Psychotropic influence - influence on the psyche of people with the help of medicines, chemical or biological substances, including odorous substances.

The main methods of psychological influence are persuasion, suggestion and manipulation

The use of radio and television for social influence presents enormous opportunities for influencing large, mass audiences. No other media outlet can match them in terms of reach.

Television is one of the most effective means social influence and psychological impact. Already, most families in developed countries West and East own more than one TV. Its role is constantly growing with the expansion of the satellite TV network, the emergence of digital TV and the connection of television with computer networks of the Internet.

Manipulation is primarily hidden ways of controlling others. However, very often any psychological impact is declared manipulation. That this is not the case can be seen by examining the list of different types of psychological influence.

Depending on various grounds, the following types of psychological impact are distinguished:

1. Depending on the impact strategy: subject-subject (addressee as a partner) and subject-object (addressee as an object of influence).

2. According to regularity: arbitrary and involuntary.

3. By direction: direct (focused on a specific person) and indirect (concerns the situation).

4. By type of contact: direct (personal contact between the addressee and the initiator) and indirect (orientation of the addressee in the situation by indirect signs, according to rumors) [p. 69, 5].

Types of psychological interaction according to Grachev, Melnik:

1. Persuasion - a conscious reasoned influence on another person or on a group of people in order to change their judgments or decisions.

Means of persuasion can be: presentation of clear and precise arguments to the addressee; acceptance of the strengths and weaknesses of the decision; obtaining consent at each step of the proof.

2. Suggestion - a conscious unreasoned impact on a person in order to change his state, attitude to something. Means of influence: personal magnetism, authority; confidence in verbal and non-verbal behavior; use of the conditions.

V. Boyko singled out methods of suggestion: through the motivational sphere of consciousness, through identification, with the help of a reference to authority, through personification and through prejudice.

3. Infection - an arbitrary and involuntary transfer of one's state or attitude to another person. Means of influence: high energy of one's own behavior; artistry; the use of intrigue when involving a partner in the performance of actions; look "eye to eye"; touch and physical contact.

4. Inciting the impulse to imitate - the ability to cause a desire to be like oneself. Means of influence: public fame of the influencer; demonstration of high standards of skill; the manifestation of an example of valor, mercy, service to the idea; innovation; personal magnetism; call to imitation.

5. Formation of benevolence - the creation of a positive attitude towards yourself by the addressee. Means of influence: manifestation by the influencer of their own originality and attractiveness; expressing favorable judgments about the addressee, imitation of him, rendering him a service.

6. Request - an appeal to the addressee with an appeal to satisfy the desires of the influencer. Means of influence: clear and polite language; recognition of the right of the addressee to refuse the request.

7. Coercion - the requirement to comply with the order of the initiator, backed up by threats, hidden or explicit. Means: announcement of rigidly defined deadlines or ways of doing the work; imposing non-negotiable prohibitions; intimidation of the consequences; threat of punishment.

8. Destructive criticism - making offensive judgments about a person's personality, rude ridicule of his actions. Means of influence: humiliation of the individual; making fun of what the criticized is not able to change - appearance, social and national origin, voice, etc.; making fair criticisms of an addressee who is overwhelmed by failure.

9. Ignoring - deliberate inattention, absent-mindedness in relation to the communication partner, his statements and actions. Most often it is perceived as a sign of neglect and disrespect, in some cases it acts as a tactful form of forgiveness for tactlessness and awkwardness made by a partner.

10. Manipulation - hidden from the addressee, his motivation to experience certain states, change attitudes towards something, make decisions and perform actions necessary to achieve the goals of the initiator. At the same time, it is important for the manipulator that the addressee considers these thoughts, feelings, decisions and actions his own, and not imposed from outside, and recognizes himself as responsible for them. [p.75, 4]

Robert Cialdini [p.63, 23] identified the rules that are the basis for the interaction of people in society:

1. Mutual exchange

According to sociologists and anthropologists, one of the basic, most widespread norms of human culture is embodied in the rule of reciprocity. In accordance with this rule, a person tries to pay in a certain way for what another person has provided him. By obliging the "receiver" to reciprocate in the future, the reciprocity rule allows one individual to give something to another with the certainty that it will not be completely lost. This confidence makes it possible to develop various kinds of long-term relationships, interactions and exchanges that are beneficial to society. Consequently, all members of society are “trained” from childhood to follow this rule. Those who ignore this rule feel a clear disapproval from society.

2. Commitment and consistency

By making a commitment, i.e. having taken a certain position, people tend to agree with the requirements that correspond to this obligation. Therefore, many "compliance professionals" try to encourage people to initially adopt a position that is consistent with the behavior that they will later adopt.

However, not all commitments are equally effective in generating follow-up actions in the future. The most effective are active, public commitments.

In addition, obligations must be internally motivated, not imposed from outside, and certain efforts must be expended on their implementation.

3. Social proof

People, in order to decide what to believe and how to act in a given situation, are guided by what other people believe and do in a similar situation.

The tendency to imitate was found in both children and adults. This propensity manifests itself in a variety of actions, such as making a decision to buy something, donating money to charitable causes, and releasing phobias. The principle of social proof can be applied to induce a person to comply with one or another requirement.

At the same time, the person is informed that many people (the more the better) agreed with this requirement.

4. Goodwill

People prefer to agree with those individuals who are familiar and sympathetic to them. We like people who are like us, and we are more willing to go along with the demands of just such people, often unconsciously.

Society as a whole exerts strong pressure on its individual members to come to terms with the demand for authority. The trend is due to the centuries-old practice of suggesting that obedience is the right thing to do. It can be convenient for people to obey the orders of true authorities, because. they usually have a large store of knowledge, wisdom and power.

6. Scarcity

People value more what is less available. This principle is often used to take advantage of compliance techniques such as quantity-limiting tactics or deadline-setting tactics, in which people try to convince us that access to what they offer is severely limited, be it a product. or information.

Kronik A.A., Kronik E.A. identified three methods of mutual understanding: the formation of a new language, concessions to a partner, and a dialogue of independents. “The predominance of one or another technique determines the appropriate interaction strategy” [p. 130, 8]

In the process of interaction, the following features of influence should be taken into account:

If it is directed to the sphere of needs, then its results affect primarily the direction and strength of their motives

When it is aimed at emotions, it is reflected in inner experiences, interpersonal relationships;

· The combination of influences on both named spheres makes it possible to influence the volitional activity of people and thus control their behavior;

· As a result of the influence on the intellect, the nature of people's perception of incoming information and the picture of the world as a whole are changing;

· Influence on the communicative-behavioral sphere allows you to create socio-psychological comfort or discomfort, to force people to cooperate or conflict with others.

In the psyche of people, cognitive dissonance may arise - a contradiction between the intellectual-cognitive and other components of the psyche. Dissonance can be reduced by changing the actions and actions of people, reducing the significance of the results of influence and decisions taken, change people's social perception, take sedative drugs or alcohol to relieve the discomfort caused by dissonance.

The effectiveness of influence also depends on the specifics of the manifestation of the mechanisms of transformation of beliefs, attitudes and stereotypes.

Beliefs are meaningful. Sustainable motives of people's activities, which have an ideological basis and are manifested in actions and behavior.

The psychological impact always has a pair character. In it, one can distinguish between the subject of psychological influence (the one who exerts it) and the object of influence (the one to whom it is directed). It should be taken into account their inextricable relationship, as well as the fact that in the process of exposure they often change places. [p.84, 10] “The psychological characteristic of the interaction between the subject and the object of interpersonal perception is to build the image of another person. In this case, two questions arise: how is this image formed and what is this image, i.e. what is the representation of the subject about the object. [p.149, 21]

Kruzhkova O.V. and Shakhmatova O.N. revealed the following principles for the implementation of psychological interaction:

psychological impact in the process of activity - suggests that in the course of its implementation, the impact on people can be less noticeable and more effective;

Reliance on the positive and negative in the individual and the group focuses on the study and consideration, first of all, of what can contribute to or hinder the psychological impact, certain characteristics of the individual or group can both contribute to the impact and hinder it;

The combination of high intensity of influence, taking into account the specific characteristics of its object, implies the continuous achievement of the goals of psychological influence, the temporary suspension of which is possible only when it needs to be adjusted due to the psychological characteristics of the objects of influence;

· an individual and differentiated approach implies a deep and comprehensive knowledge and consideration of the individual psychological characteristics of its subjects; determination of specific tasks of influencing specific people, taking into account their personal characteristics; continuous analysis of the results of the PC; timely introduction of adjustments to the methodology for its implementation, taking into account the characteristics of its objects;

unity, coherence and continuity - requires the presence of a unity of views of all subjects of the HP on its tasks; achieving unity in all elements and in the entire content of the PV; the use of scientific achievements to increase the effectiveness of PV on various groups or individuals; harmonization of the PV line in relation to individuals; generalization of the experience of achieving the consistency of PV in various social conditions;

The psychological impact in the group and through the team requires prioritization in influencing informal leaders and leaders of the group, the prospects for the development of the group, the factors that unite its participants, focusing on them the main influence, the skillful use of the strength of the group, opinions in the interests of increasing the effectiveness of the PV, makes members of the group to subordinate their personal interests to the common ones, to achieve the unity of the group, which facilitates the achievement of the goals of the PV [p. 85, 9].

Grachev, Melnik [p. 214, 4] identify other principles for the implementation of socio-psychological interaction.

From the point of view of history, one of the first attempts to systematize the methods of information and psychological influence on the mass consciousness with the help of propaganda was the description in a number of foreign and domestic sources technologies of stereotyping and big lies, as well as the allocation of seven basic principles of information and psychological impact, the so-called "ABC of propaganda":

1. Attribution or labeling - the choice of offensive epithets, metaphors, "labels" for naming a person, idea, phenomenon in order to cause an emotionally negative attitude of others.

2. Shining generalizations - replacing the name of a phenomenon, an idea with a more general generic name that has a positive emotional coloring and evokes a benevolent attitude of others.

3. Transfer or transfer - an unobtrusive extension of the authority and prestige of what is valued and respected by people to what the source of communication presents.

4. Reference to authorities - bringing the statements of individuals with high authority, or vice versa, those that cause a negative reaction in the category of people on whom the manipulative influence is directed.

5. Your guys - an attempt to establish friendly relations with the audience on the basis that the communicator, his ideas, suggestions are good, because belong to the common people.

6. Shuffling - selection and biased presentation of only positive or only negative facts while suppressing the opposite. The goal is to show the attractiveness or unattractiveness of any point of view, idea, etc.

7. Common car - selection of judgments that require uniformity in behavior and create the impression that everyone does this.

Manipulative techniques used during discussions and discussions:

Levels by organization and procedure

Dosing of the initial information base or excess of information

Formation of attitudes through targeted selection of speakers

· Managing the discussion process.

1.3 Ways to counter influence

“People appreciate the feeling of freedom and independence. Therefore, when social pressure becomes so strong that it begins to infringe on their sense of freedom, they can rebel” [p. 300, 14]

Olga Vladimirovna Kruzhkova and Olga Nikolaevna Shakhmatova in the textbook " Social Psychology in diagrams, tables and crosswords” revealed the following types of resistance to influence [p. 84, 9]:

1. Confrontation - a conscious, reasoned response to an attempt at persuasion, refuting or challenging the arguments of the actor.

2. Constructive criticism - a fact-based discussion of the goals, means or actions of the actor and justification of their inconsistency with the goals, conditions and requirements of the addressee.

3. Energy mobilization - the addressee's resistance to attempts to inspire or convey to him a certain state, mode of action, attitude.

4. Creativity - the creation of a new model, example, fashion.

5. Psychological self-defense - the use of speech formulas and intonational means that allow you to keep your presence of mind and gain time to think about further steps in a situation of coercion.

6. Ignoring - actions indicating that the addressee deliberately does not notice or does not take into account the words, actions and feelings of the initiator.

7. Confrontation - an open and consistent opposition by the addressee of his position and requirements to the initiator.

8. Refusal - an expression by the addressee of his disagreement to fulfill the request of the initiator of the impact.

Robert Cialdini [p. 256, 23] revealed the features of resistance to influence.

In order to resist the influence of authority, it is necessary, first of all, to remove the element of surprise. Because we tend to underestimate the influence of authority (and its symbols) on our actions, we are at a disadvantage in that we do not consider it necessary to be careful in situations where the authority may need a concession on our part. Therefore, in order to protect yourself from the pressure of authorities, you must first realize their power. When this awareness is combined with an understanding of how easy it is to counterfeit symbols of authority, a tactic can be applied that is to be very careful in situations where any authority tries to use its influence.

Seems simple, right? And in a sense, it's really simple. Awareness of the influence of authority should help us to resist it. However, there is one “but” here - the familiar inconsistency characteristic of all instruments of influence. We may not need to resist the influence of authority at all, or at least not in most cases. Usually authority figures know what they are talking about. Physicians, judges, high-ranking officials, legislators, and the like usually end up at the top of the social hierarchy due to their higher level of knowledge and judgment than most other people. Therefore, authorities tend to give excellent advice. So, authorities are often experts in some field; indeed, one of the dictionary definitions of authority is expert. In most cases, it makes no sense to try to replace the judgments of an expert, authority with our own, much less well-founded ones. At the same time, it is unwise to rely on the opinion of an authority in all cases. The main thing for us is to learn to determine, especially without straining and not being overly vigilant, when it is advisable to comply with the requirements of authorities, and when this should not be done.

In a difficult situation, you should ask yourself two questions. First, when confronted with what looks like an authority figure attempting to influence us, we must ask, "Is this authority really an expert in the field?" Such a question focuses our attention on two crucial pieces of information: the truth of a given authority and its competence in that particular area. Having thus obtained evidence that we are dealing with an authoritative specialist, we can deftly bypass the traps set.

The question "Is this authority really competent in this field?" can bring great benefit because it draws our attention to the obvious. We stop focusing on symbols that don't really mean anything and start thinking about the truth of authority and its competence. Moreover, this question prompts us to distinguish between really important authorities and authorities that are useless, unnecessary. We easily forget this distinction when the pressure of authority is combined with the onslaught of problems. modern life. Texas street passers who darted off the sidewalk into the street following an unruly pedestrian dressed in a business suit are a prime example. Even if this man was an authority in business circles, as his clothes suggest, he was hardly a more authority on crossing the street than the pedestrians who followed him.

Let's assume that we are still faced with an authority who is a competent specialist in the field of interest to us. Before listening to his opinion, one should ask oneself one more simple question: "How true, on our assumption, will this authority be in this particular case?" Authorities, even the best informed, may deliberately misrepresent the information provided to us. Therefore, we need to determine how reliable these people are in a given situation. In most cases, we do just that. We allow ourselves to be influenced to a much greater extent by those specialists who seem impartial to us than by those who, in our opinion, can gain something by convincing us.

By thinking about how authority can benefit from our compliance, we provide ourselves with additional opportunities to resist its excessive pressure. Even authorities who are well-informed in any field will not convince us until we find evidence that they present the facts truthfully.

In asking ourselves the reliability of the authority with which we are dealing, we must keep in mind a little trick that the "professionals of compliance" often use to convince us of their sincerity: they, as it might seem at first glance, are to a certain extent against their own interests. With the help of such a subtle device, these people seek to prove their honesty to us. And it must be admitted that they succeed quite often. Perhaps they mention a small flaw in the products they offer. However, the noted minor drawback will invariably be lost against the background of more important advantages of the advertised product.

In life, there are often cases when we are not able to weigh all the circumstances and choose the real behavior that could save us from unpleasant experiences, for example, in the event of a conflict. Then the mechanisms of internal protection are activated.

The simplest defensive behavior is flight. Escape, leaving the situation may not be real, but internal, carried out only in self-consciousness. When we are sure in advance that as a result of any business we will get unpleasant experiences, we refuse this business. If social contacts lead in most cases to troubles, then a tendency to withdraw into oneself (introversion) is gradually formed, which becomes a personality trait, i.e., flight from social contacts. Various departures ultimately lead to a limitation of the "I", which contributes to the disharmony of personality development.

In some cases, a person completely goes into a certain activity or occupation, which becomes the main one to the detriment of others. This kind of withdrawal into activity is called “compensation”, and in those cases when this withdrawal makes other activities simply impossible, “overcompensation”. Then all the mental and spiritual powers of a person are expressed in only one activity, which acquires an almost obsessive, coercive character. Sometimes such compensation is a substitute for, for example, unrequited feelings, self-doubt, and ultimately leads to the fact that a person can even find outstanding results in the chosen activity. But since other aspects of his personality do not receive development, then, despite the social value of his results, this person suffers. Overcompensation always leads to disharmonic development.

Care in some cases takes the form of a direct denial of circumstances that are unpleasant to us. For example, a boy who has been defeated in a competition rebuilds very quickly, begins to deny the fact of the defeat and even talks about his victory.

This kind of denial is caused by the desire of self-consciousness to protect itself from unbearable suffering.

The desire to get away from the situation is often expressed in directed forgetting, which is commonly called "repression". Normally functioning self-consciousness always contributes to forgetting especially unpleasant events. Therefore, we often tend to remember only the good things. However, this is not the case for everyone. Particularly sensitive individuals, on the contrary, remember only the bad. This can lead them to a long depressing mood, they cannot forget their painful losses and experiences for a long time. In these cases, the mechanisms of psychological defense do not work enough.

What are the forces and conditions of displacement? The study of pathogenic situations made it possible to give an answer to this. In any such experience, the point is that some desire arises that is in sharp contradiction with other desires, which is incompatible with the ethical and aesthetic views of the individual. A short conflict arises, but the end of this internal struggle is that the idea that has arisen in consciousness as the bearer of this incompatible desire is subjected to repression and, together with the memories related to it, is eliminated from consciousness and forgotten. The incompatibility of the corresponding idea with the "I" becomes the motive of repression; moreover, it is the ethical and other requirements of man that are the displacing forces. The acceptance of an incompatible desire, or, what is the same, the continuation of the conflict, would cause considerable displeasure; this displeasure is eliminated by repression, which is thus one of the protective devices of the personality.

Social mimicry is manifested in the fact that the student does not want to be different from his comrades. The desire to "be like everyone else" satisfies the need for security. Shame, a sense of inferiority of a teenager in the absence of, for example, expensive jeans, act as a defense against the fear of being rejected by his group. The narrowness of consciousness does not allow him to reveal the true cause of shame, and thus the teenager becomes stubborn and merciless towards his parents. Social mimicry is also manifested in the desire to be like the people on whom we depend or whom we fear. This kind of defense was discovered when it was found that some teenagers try to be like their bullies. This mechanism is called "identification with aggression". The identification process is learned spontaneously, by transferring the behavior program observed in another to similar own situations.

If in identification we attribute to ourselves the properties of another person, then in the mechanism of projection we liken others to ourselves. If a person suddenly finds himself as lazy, deceitful, mediocre, and it is unbearable for him to realize himself as such, he decides that others are also deceitful and lazy, and ceases to suffer.

When a student receives a "deuce", he always has reasons with which he explains his failure to himself and others: the teacher was biased, he got a "bad" question, etc. It is rare to say that failure is caused by chronic neglect of one's duties and complete unpreparedness. This kind of convenient explanation of their results - rationalization - is also a defense mechanism. Moreover, any psychological defense gives only a temporary calm of feelings of fear or guilt, but does not create new constructive types of behavior, reinforces the existing shortcomings.

It happens that a person with a strong and painful sense of his inferiority is constantly proud and tries to prove that he respects himself, the shy person tries to look impudent, the cowardly - brave, the merciless - kind. This desire to veil some kind of shortcoming or guilt through opposite, contrasting manifestations of character or behavior is commonly called “reaction formation”. The formation of reactions by contrast occurs when these defense mechanisms do not work and if the real reason is unacceptable for the person himself, it conflicts with his system of values.

As has been shown recently, psychological defense is a normal, constantly applied psychological mechanism. This mechanism is of great importance in the resistance provided by the body to the disease, and prevents - with its proper functioning - the disorganization of mental activity and behavior, not only in conditions of conflict between consciousness and the unconscious, but also in the formation of sufficiently conscious, affectively colored psychological attitudes. So, for example, if the formed emotionally saturated attitude cannot be realized for some reason, then its adverse effect can be neutralized by creating another one, wider in meaning, within which the contradiction between the initial desire and the obstacle is eliminated. Entering into the system of this wider attitude, the original desire is transformed as a motive and therefore rendered harmless,

A number of studies have shown that the ability for protective mental activity is expressed in different people to varying degrees.

For some who are well psychologically protected, the processing of pathogenic old ones and the emergence of more adequate new psychological attitudes begin as soon as persons of this psychological type encounter some kind of, even an insignificant, obstacle in their affective aspirations. Others, poorly psychologically protected, are unable to develop this defensive activity in much more serious cases - even when adaptive changes in attitudes become a necessary condition for averting a formidable clinical prospect.

You can also use the following techniques: speech techniques, assumptions, opposition, choice without choice, the right to choose, anchor technique.

Speech techniques. In this group, the main place is occupied by truisms. A truism is the most obvious statement, a well-known, hackneyed, banal truth. If you tell your opponent during the negotiation process: “Sometimes people make decisions under the influence of feelings”, “people often feel relieved after they conclude an agreement ...”, etc., then you disguise certain instructions as reasoning. And it works!

For the sake of sporting interest, try to create truisms suitable for your business and use them in negotiations. Truisms are used to evoke the desired behavioral response for you. Let's give some examples. A trance inducing trance trance - "Everyone goes into a trance in their own way"; truism on creating a learning attitude - "Experience - great teacher»; forgetting truism - "People are able to forget what they know."

Assumptions. An assumption is made of the occurrence of a certain behavioral reaction. For this, sentences are constructed using turns of speech that indicate the time or sequence of actions. Typical figures of speech used in this technique are: "before...", "after...", "during...", "as...", "before... .", "when...", "while.." For example: "Before you tell me what problem you want to work on, take a deep breath"; "Before you agree to my proposal, take a look at these diagrams."

Come up with a few phrases built around this principle and use them in your business.

Oppositions. There are two behavioral responses that can be contrasted here. When using oppositions, it is useful to rely on kinesthetics to create a belief in the person that there are opposites. For example: “The more you try to resist, the sooner you will realize that it is in vain”; “The more difficult the problem seems, the easier it is to find a suitable solution”; “The more difficult this course is for you to study, the easier it will be to apply it in practice.”

Come up with some phrases that you can use in your business.

Choice without choice. Here are a few phrases that can be used in this technique. “Do you want to go to bed right now or after you put the toys away?”; "Would you like to go into a trance with your eyes open or closed?"; "Will you be able to apply what you've learned right away, or after a little practice?" This technique is actively used by good sellers and sales agents. "Do you want to pay in cash or by check?" they ask, as if the purchase has already been decided.

With the choice-no-choice technique, you give the person several options to choose from, each of which suits you perfectly.

The right to choose. When using this type of suggestion, by drawing the person's attention to the reaction you want to evoke with your intonation, you offer him complete freedom of choice. In this way you are in a win-win situation, because every reaction is your success. The person, on the other hand, feels relieved, as he begins to understand that he does not have to react in any particular way. One subtlety: change your voice slightly when you say a phrase that should evoke the desired reaction from the interlocutor. "You can place an order over the phone, or right now, or not at all." The difference from the previous technique is that you say and the reaction that does not suit you, but say it in a dismissive tone.

Anchor technology. It is the most powerful mind manipulation technique. First, let's redefine the concepts. What is an anchor?

Each of you has such a song or melody, upon hearing which, you remember your past and, as it were, return to that time. For each of you, the image of a laughing child evokes certain feelings. Each of you has such a place on the body, the touch of which is pleasant to you, and maybe at the same time you remember your mother or someone else. Each of you has anchors, and these anchors are very, very many. And anchors can be in any modality: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic.

So, an anchor is something from the outside world (sound, image, touch). And when the anchor affects you, in response you begin to experience quite specific feelings, and each time the same. Most of the anchors you currently have were set unconsciously by yourself or others and are therefore unpredictable. You yourself do not know how your consciousness will react to this or that touch of your body. Consciousness often cannot explain why any melody makes us sad or otherwise feels. Now, knowing this technique, you have the opportunity to do it consciously.

How to set an anchor? First, consider how this is done on another person or group of people. For example, you need to create a feeling of trust in someone (or fear, or love, or attention, or whatever) and anchor it with an anchor so that you can then have direct access to the selected resource.

With your question, you evoke in the other person the memory of the time when he really experienced the feeling you need. "When in last time you had sincere trust and were not disappointed by this?

Any touch, any sound, any movement of yours, if it was in the field of view of another person, can become an anchor. Note that the kinesthetic anchor is more powerful and very difficult to resist. So, whenever possible, place kinesthetic anchors by touching the other person. Now you can check the result of the work. When you reproduce the anchor as accurately as possible, the other person responds with the feeling that you fixed for them. If you make the phone ring an anchor, then every time the phone rings, the person will have this feeling. This technique is very similar and has much in common with the experiments of Academician Pavlov on conditioned reflexes. A phone call inspires confidence, a stimulus - a reaction; the stimulus is the anchor and the resource is the response; the anchor invokes the resource.

The anchor is set at the peak of the experience, when a person is maximally immersed in this feeling. Anchor should be reproduced with maximum accuracy. If it is a kinesthetic anchor, then the touch should be repeated in the same place as the first time you set it, with the same effort, with the same pressure, etc. If it was the sound of your voice, then it should be the same , and when you reproduce the anchor: the same timbre, the same volume, etc. If this was a movement that your interlocutor saw, then it should be repeated exactly.

Sidorenko E.V. identified such ways of resisting influence, such as:

1. Counterargumentation. Conscious reasoned response to an attempt to persuade, refuting or challenging the arguments of the initiator of the impact.

2. Psychological self-defense. The use of speech formulas and intonation means that allow you to maintain your presence of mind and gain time to think about next steps in a situation of destructive criticism, coercion or manipulation.

3. Information dialogue. Clarification of the partner's position and one's own position through the exchange of questions and answers, messages and proposals.

4. Constructive criticism. Fact-supported discussion of the goals, means or actions of the initiator of the impact and justification of their inconsistency with the goals, conditions and requirements of the addressee.

5. Energy mobilization. The resistance of the addressee to attempts to instill or convey to him a certain state, attitude, intention or course of action.

6. Creativity. The creation of a new one that ignores or overcomes the influence of a pattern, example, or fashion.

7. Evasion. The desire to avoid any form of interaction with the initiator of the impact, including random personal meetings and clashes.

8. Ignoring. Actions indicating that the addressee deliberately does not notice or does not take into account the words, actions or feelings expressed by the addressee.

9. Confrontation. Open and consistent opposition by the addressee of his position and his requirements to the initiator of the impact.

10. Refusal. Expression by the addressee of his disagreement to fulfill the request of the initiator of the impact. [p.184, 20]

Sidorenko also opposed a certain type of influence with specific constructive and non-constructive techniques for countering influence. So, for example, she contrasted the request with refusal and evasion as constructive types of opposition to influence, and destructive criticism and ignoring - as non-constructive opposition (see Appendix 2).

1.4 Manipulation as a type of psychological impact

Psychological influence consists in the influence of one person or group on the psyche of another group, on their thinking, imagination, feelings, will, etc. The purpose and results of psychological impact is the restructuring of the psyche of the object of influence, the achievement of certain mental shifts and changes that affect activity and behavior.

Manipulation as a type of psychological influence is a hidden motivation from the addressee to experience certain states, change attitudes towards something, make decisions and perform actions necessary to achieve the goals of the initiator. At the same time, it is important for the manipulator that the addressee considers these thoughts, feelings, decisions and actions his own, and not imposed from outside, and recognizes himself as responsible for them. [p.112, 9]

Means of influence:

Ш Violation of personal space, expressed in too close proximity or even touching

Ш A sharp acceleration, or vice versa, a slowdown in the pace of conversation

Sh A teasing statement (for example: "Are you that easy to upset?")

Ø Encouragement statements (for example: “It is unlikely that you can do this”)

Ш "Innocent deception", misrepresentation

Slander and slander disguised as insignificant and random statements, which can be mistaken for such supposedly only due to a misunderstanding

Ш An exaggerated demonstration of one’s weakness, inexperience, ignorance, “stupidity” in order to arouse in the addressee the desire to help, to do his job for the manipulator, to transfer valuable or even secret information to him, to teach him to do something, etc.

Ш "Innocent" blackmail: "friendly" hints of mistakes, blunders, violations committed by the addressee in the past; playful references to “old sins” or personal secrets of the addressee [p. 112, 9]

Gretsov A.G. in his book "Psychological Training with Teenagers" identifies the following methods of manipulation:

1. Exaggeration of typical behavior. Most people tend to look closely at others and try to behave like them, to do what is accepted. Few people want to be a black sheep. Therefore, when a person wants to be persuaded to a certain behavior, he is usually presented with this behavior as typical of many.

2. Reference to authorities. People tend to listen to the opinions of those who are well known, have reached a certain weight in society, have some important knowledge, and so on. Manipulators abuse this by displaying false authority or simply buying a public statement of authority.

3. Creation of haste, excitement. It takes time for a person to think deeply about his actions. But they try to deprive him of time when they want to incline him to dubious actions. By creating a feeling of haste in a person, it is much easier to make him act under the influence of a momentary impulse, rather than reason.

4. Abuse of the rule of reciprocity. The rules of etiquette require us to reciprocate in situations where we are helped, rendered a service, or given a gift. But sometimes they can give us a “gift” or provide an unsolicited service on purpose - in order to influence, to achieve something from us.

5. Imposing obligations. When a person assumes any obligations, at least in in general terms, then it is much easier to convince him to accept those details that he did not know about, because a person strives for the consistency of his behavior.

The main components of manipulative influence are: purposeful transformation (distortion, concealment) of information; concealment of exposure; impact targets, i.e. those mental structures that are affected; robotization [p.112, 10].

Manipulation is a type of psychological influence, the skillful execution of which leads to the open excitation of intentions in another person that do not coincide with his actual desires. [p.382, 19]

Manipulation as a kind of psychological influence helps to achieve the goal. However, inadequate and illiterate use of methods of influence can lead to undesirable consequences - the depersonalization of the individual - the object of influence, the erasure of his individual psychological characteristics, or even destruction, both mentally and physically.

Manipulation is a component of interpersonal relationships, and does not manifest itself. There are people who activate the conditions for the emergence of manipulation. In this regard, there is a personality trait that contributes to successful manipulation - Machiavellianism. In domestic psychology, the concept of "Machiavellianism" is often replaced by the ability and inclination to manipulate.

Currently, the concept of "Machiavellianism" is often used in various humanities. To a greater extent, it is common in Western psychology and is practically not used in Russian psychology, where Machiavellianism is often replaced by the ability or ability to manipulate people.

Western psychologists call Machiavellianism the tendency of a person to manipulate other people in interpersonal relationships, i.e. in this case, it is implied that the subject hides his true intentions when using false distracting maneuvers so that the interaction partner, without noticing it, changes his personal, true goals, or methods of action.

Machiavellianism is usually defined as the tendency of a person in an interpersonal situation to manipulate others through subtle, subtle, or non-physically aggressive means such as flattery, deceit, intimidation, or bribery. Machiavellianism can also be called a strategy of social behavior, including the manipulation of other people for personal gain. Each individual is capable of manipulative behavior to varying degrees, but in some people these tendencies and abilities are more pronounced than in others.

Probably, we all would like not only to be able to influence people, but also to successfully resist the influence on us from the outside. The development of this skill is facilitated by the conduct of certain training programs aimed at developing the skills of influence and counteraction to it. And before compiling a training and conducting it, it is necessary to identify the level of expression of the desire to influence people, for which a survey is conducted.

Name	Definition	Application
Information and psychological impact (information and propaganda, ideological)	is the impact of the word, information	The main purpose of such influence is the formation of certain ideological (social) ideas, views, and beliefs. At the same time, it evokes positive or negative emotions, feelings and even violent mass reactions in people, forms stable images-representations.
Psychogenic impact	this is a consequence of: physical or shock effects of environmental conditions or some events on the brain, as a result of which there is a violation of normal neuropsychic activity	As a result of a brain injury, a person loses the ability to think rationally, his memory disappears, etc. Or he is exposed to such physical factors (sound, lighting, temperature, etc.), which, through certain physiological reactions, change the state of his psyche. An illustrative case of psychogenic influence is the influence of color on the psychophysiological and emotional state of a person. It has been experimentally established that under the influence of purple, red, orange and yellow colors, the breathing and pulse of a person quickens and deepens, his blood pressure rises, and green, blue, indigo and violet colors have the opposite effect. The first group of colors is exciting, the second is soothing.

		End of table 5.1
Psychoanalytic (psycho-correctional) impact	this is the impact on the subconscious of a person by therapeutic means, especially in a state of hypnosis or deep sleep	In the process of sound control of the psyche of people and their behavior, verbal suggestions (commands) in an encoded form are output to any carrier of sound information (audio cassettes, radio or television programs, sound effects). A person listens to music or the sound of the surf in the rest room, follows the dialogues of the characters in the film and does not suspect that they contain commands that are not perceived by consciousness, but are always recorded by the subconscious, forcing him to subsequently do what is prescribed.
Neurolinguistic Impact(NLP - Neuro Linguistic Programming)	introduction into the consciousness of special linguistic programs that change the motivation of people	The main means of influence are specially selected verbal (verbal) and non-verbal linguistic programs, the assimilation of the content of which allows you to change the beliefs, views and ideas of a person (both an individual and entire groups of people) in a given direction. Psychoanalytic and neurolinguistic types of influences are useful when they are used for humane purposes. If they are used to conquer and ensure dominance over other people, then they are a means of psychological violence.
Psychotronic (parapsychological, extrasensory) influence	this is an impact on other people, carried out by transmitting information through extrasensory (unconscious) perception	If during the film one more frame per second is added to twenty-four frames per second - the 25th - with completely different information, then the audience does not notice it, but it significantly affects their emotional state and behavior. This is the “phenomenon of the 25th frame”, which is explained by the fact that a person has not only a sensory (conscious) range of perception, but also a subsensory (unconscious) range, in which information is assimilated by the psyche, bypassing consciousness
Psychotropic effect	is the impact on the psyche of people with the help of medicines, chemicals or biological substances	Some odorous substances have a strong effect on the psyche. The American psychiatrist A. Hirsch found that certain smells cause specific actions and behavior of a person. He started with a simple but very profitable business. He distributed the essence he had specially developed in various sections of the stores and found that there was a sharp increase in sales of goods compared to the unpollinated sections. Odors also affect productivity. With the help of smells, you can raise or lower blood pressure, slow down or speed up your heartbeat, excite or, conversely, put you to sleep.

There is another approach to identifying ways in which partners influence each other. These include: infection, suggestion, persuasion and imitation.

Infection. In its most general form, it can be defined as an unconscious, involuntary exposure of a person to certain mental states. It manifests itself through the transmission of a certain emotional state or, in the words of the famous psychologist B.D. Parygin, mental attitude.

Examples are the applause at the performance of a popular actor, which, having played the role of an impulse, "infect" the hall with a general mood, "sickness" in stadiums during sports competitions. Formal and informal leaders of any team, as a rule, represent a model of an amplifier of a certain mental attitude that may arise in a group.

It has been experimentally established that the higher the level of personality development, the more critical its attitude to the impact and, thus, the weaker the action of the “infection” mechanism.

Suggestion. This is a purposeful, unreasoned impact of one person on another. When suggesting ( suggestions) the process of information transfer is carried out, based on its non-critical perception. The phenomenon of resistance to suggestive influence is called countersuggestion. Suggestion is made by direct inoculation of mental states, and does not need proofs and logic. Suggestion is an emotional-volitional influence. The effect of suggestion depends on age and condition: children are more suggestible than adults. Tired, physically weakened people are more suggestible. It has been experimentally proven that the decisive condition for effective suggestion is the authority of the suggester. I distinguish 3 types protection against suggestion :

Avoidance. Avoidance of sources of influence, avoidance of contacts with a partner is implied.

Misunderstanding. It is far from always possible to identify the source of information as dangerous, alien or non-authoritative and thus protect against unwanted influence. Quite often, some potentially dangerous information for a person can also come from people whom we generally and generally trust. In this case, the defense will be a kind of misunderstanding of the message itself. You can learn about what levels of misunderstanding exist and how to overcome them from the material on the communicative side of communication.

Belief. It is built on the fact that with the help of rationale to achieve consent from the person receiving the information. Persuasion is an intellectual impact on the consciousness of the individual through an appeal to her own critical judgment.

Imitation. Its specificity, in contrast to infection and suggestion, lies in the fact that here it is not a simple acceptance of the external features of the behavior of another person, but the reproduction by him of the features and images of the behavior demonstrated. Since we are talking about the assimilation of the proposed patterns of behavior, there are two plans for imitation, either for a specific person, or for the norms of behavior developed by the group.

In addition to the psychological impact, communication also implies interaction , which is always present in the form of two components:

2) style interactions (how a person interacts with others).

You can talk about productive or unproductive interaction style. Each situation dictates its own style of behavior and actions: in each of them, a person “feeds” himself differently, and if this self-feeding is not adequate, interaction is difficult. If a style is formed on the basis of actions in a particular situation, and then mechanically transferred to another situation, then, naturally, success cannot be guaranteed.

To assess the style of interaction, there are the following criteria:

1) the nature of the activity in the position of partners;

2) the nature of the goals put forward;

3) nature of liability;

4) the nature of the relationship that arises between the partners;

5) the nature of the functioning of the identification mechanism.

In addition to species, there are usually several interaction types, The most common is their division in terms of performance: for cooperation and competition.

Cooperation - this is such an interaction in which its subjects reach a mutual agreement on the goals pursued and strive not to violate it as long as their interests coincide.

Competition - this is an interaction characterized by the achievement of individual or group goals and interests in the conditions of confrontation between people.

In both cases, both the type of interaction (cooperation or rivalry) and the degree of expression of this interaction (successful or less successful cooperation) determine the nature of interpersonal relationships.

In the process of implementing these types of interaction, as a rule, the following leading strategies of behavior in interaction appear (Fig. 5.4):

1. Cooperation is aimed at the full satisfaction of the participants in the interaction of their needs without infringing on the interests of the other (the motives of cooperation or competition are realized).

2. Rivalry(opposition) involves focusing solely on one's own goals without taking into account the goals of communication partners (individualism).

3. Compromise is realized in the private achievement of the goals of partners for the sake of conditional equality.

4. Compliance (adaptation) involves the sacrifice of one's own goals in order to achieve the goals of a partner (altruism).

5. Avoidance represents a withdrawal from contact, the loss of one's own goals to exclude the gain of another.

Fig.5.4. The main strategies of behavior in the process of interaction

One of the most famous attempts to develop a typology of interaction belongs to R. Bailes. He developed a scheme that allows, according to a single plan, to register different kinds group interactions. R. Bailes fixed with the help of the method of observation those real manifestations of interactions that could be seen in a group of children performing some joint activity. The initial list of such types of interactions turned out to be very extensive (about 82 items) and, therefore, was unsuitable for constructing an experiment. R. Bailes reduced the observed patterns of interactions into categories, suggesting that, in principle, each group activity can be described using four categories in which its manifestations are recorded: the area of ​​positive emotions, the area of ​​negative emotions, the area of ​​problem solving and the area of ​​setting these problems. Then all the recorded types of interactions were divided into four headings (Table 5.2).

Table 5.2

Main areas of interaction

and corresponding behavioral manifestations (according to R. Bales)

The resulting 12 types of interaction were left by R. Bailes, on the one hand, as the minimum that is necessary to take into account all possible types interactions; on the other hand, as the maximum that is allowed in the experiment.

R. Bayles' scheme has become widespread, despite a number of significant criticisms made against it. These remarks boil down to the fact that: there is no logical justification for the existence of precisely twelve possible types of interaction; there is no single basis on which the communicative manifestations of individuals (for example, expressing an opinion) and their direct manifestations in “actions” (for example, repulsing another when performing some action, etc.) were singled out; the description of the content of the general group activity is completely omitted, i.e. only formal moments of interaction are captured.

When studying “dyadic interaction” (it was studied in detail by American social psychologists J. Thibaut and G. Kelly), the “prisoner’s dilemma” proposed on the basis of mathematical game theory (Andreeva, Bogomolova, Petrovskaya, 1978) is used. In the experiment, a certain situation is set: two prisoners are in captivity and are deprived of the opportunity to communicate. A matrix is ​​built, which fixes the possible strategies for their interaction during interrogation, when each will answer, not knowing exactly how the other behaves. If we accept the two extreme possibilities of their behavior: "confess" and "not confess", then, in principle, everyone has exactly this alternative. However, the result will be different, depending on which of the answers each chooses. Four situations can emerge from combinations of different prisoner strategies: both confess; the first is conscious, the second is not; the second confesses, but the first does not; both are unaware. The matrix captures these four possible combinations. In this case, the payoff is calculated, which will be obtained with various combinations of these strategies for each "player". This payoff is the "outcome" in each model of the game situation (Fig. 5.5).

Rice. 5.5. The Prisoner's Dilemma

The application in this case of certain provisions of game theory creates a tempting prospect of not only describing, but also predicting the behavior of each participant in the interaction.

The approach to analyzing the situation depending on the positions taken by partners is developing in line with transactional analysis- a direction that has gained immense popularity around the world in recent decades. Suffice it to say that the books of E. Berne “Games that people play. People who play games”, T. Harris “I’m ok – you’re ok”, and M. Jace and D. Jonjewal “Born to Win”, dedicated to the theory and practice of transactional analysis, sold millions of copies. Perhaps the basis for such a huge popularity of this direction was its logicality, apparent obviousness and openness to non-specialists, not to mention the fact that teaching communication through transactional analysis really contributes to the ability of people to interact.

Widely known and received greatest application a scheme developed by E. Bern, in which the main concepts are the states of the Self and transactions, i.e. units of communication. E. Bern divided the repertoire of these states into the following categories:

1) states of the Self, similar to the images of parents, I–Parent;

2) states of I, aimed at an objective assessment of reality, I- Adult;

3) states of the ego, still active from the moment of their fixation in early childhood and representing archaic remnants, I–Child (I–Child).

These positions are in no way necessarily connected with the corresponding social role: they are only a purely psychological description of a certain strategy in interaction. The position of the Child can be defined as the position “I want!”, the position of the Parent as “I must!”, the position of the Adult is the association “I want” and "should". On fig. 5.6 presents images of these personal positions, in order to get a more complete picture of our current state and position and the current state and position of our interlocutor, use the data in Table. 5.3.

Rice. 5.6. The main characteristics of I-positions according to E Bern

Interaction is effective when transactions are "additional" in nature, i.e. coincide: for example, if a partner addresses another as an Adult, then he also answers from the same position (Fig.). If one of the participants in the interaction addresses the other from the position of the Adult, and the latter answers him from the position of the Parent, then the interaction is disrupted and may stop altogether. In this case, the transactions are "overlapping" (Figure 5.7).

At equal In relationships, partners are on the same positions and respond exactly from the position from which the partner expects. That is why this subspecies can be called communication with complete mutual understanding.

Unequal communication can be illustrated as follows.

The leader says: “You messed up again - you can’t be entrusted with anything!”, And the subordinate replies: “Well, what can you do, I’m generally incapable.” Here, the actions do not consist in the transfer of information, but most often in the evaluation of communication partners (Fig. 5.7).

Table 5.3

Key Features of Parent, Adult, and Child Positions

Main characteristics	Parent	Adult	Child
Characteristic words and expressions	"Everyone knows that you should never .."; "I don't understand how this is allowed..."	"How?"; "What?"; "When?"; "Where?"; "Why?"; "Maybe..."; "Probably..."	"I'm angry with you"; "That's great!"; "Fine!"; "Disgusting!"
intonation	Blaming Condescending Critical Restraining	reality bound	very emotional
State	Haughty Extra-correct Very decent	Mindfulness Finding Information	Clumsy Playful Depressed Oppressed
Facial expression	Frowning Dissatisfied Worried	Open eyes Maximum attention	Depression Surprise
Poses	Hands at the sides Pointing finger Hands folded across the chest	Tilt forward to the interlocutor, the head turns after him	Spontaneous mobility (clench fists, walk, pull button)

The next type of transaction is intersecting interaction. Elements of this communication are much rarer. Essentially, an intersecting interaction is a "wrong" interaction. Its incorrectness lies in the fact that the partners, on the one hand, demonstrate the inadequacy of understanding the position and actions of the other participant in the interaction, and on the other hand, clearly show their own intentions and actions.

Rice. 5.7. Main types of transactions

For example: the husband asks: "What time is it?", and the wife replies: "Can't you look at your watch?" In this situation, one interlocutor wanted to receive information, while the other did not understand him or did not want to understand. If they do not find mutual understanding and communication does not turn into additional interaction, then such a conversation is potentially conflicting.

The third type of transaction is hidden interactions. These are such interactions that simultaneously include two levels: explicit, verbally expressed, and hidden, implied. Let's imagine that two employees are sitting in the most boring meeting and such a conversation takes place between them.

“Don't forget, customers will come to us by four,” says the first employee.

“Yes, perhaps I’ll have to leave now,” the second answers him. (This is an example of an explicit interaction.)

- Wild boredom. Maybe we can run away? - offers the first employee.

Well done, good idea! - answers him the second. (This is an example of covert interaction.)

In this case, what is said openly is a cover for what is meant. Explicit and implicit interaction occur from different positions. Explicit - from the position of "adult - adult", and hidden - from the position of "child - child".

The use of hidden transactions implies either a deep knowledge of the partner, or greater sensitivity to non-verbal means of communication - tone of voice, intonation, facial expressions and gesture, since they are the ones that most often convey hidden content.

Communication styles. In communication with the outside world, a person accumulates life experience, gets the opportunity for self-realization. Finding ourselves in this or that situation, each of us is looking for a way to “feed” ourselves. What are we guided by when choosing this or that manner of communication?

Communication styles qualitatively reveal a person's behavior in his relationships with others. In this case, the choice of style is determined by a number of factors:

1. What is the purpose of communication we pursue? If in the process of communication it is important for us to know ourselves deeper, then we will make every effort to make our relationship trusting and objective. Sometimes there is a need to influence the minds of others. Even when discussing a read book that excited us, we are not indifferent to the opinion of opponents. Is this movie worth watching? Why should preference be given to your candidacy when applying for a job? The result of communication will depend on the persuasiveness of our arguments.

2. The situation in which it is carried out. In an informal home setting with an old childhood friend, we are unlikely to want to discuss global scientific or political problems. What can not be said about the members of the symposia.

3. The status, personal qualities, worldview and position of the interlocutor affect those who communicate. Using the language of aphorisms, this can be said like this: "A diplomat will think twice before saying nothing."

There are different styles of communication in psychology, but the main ones are: ritualistic, humanistic, manipulative, imperative(Table 5.4).

Table 5.4

Basic Interaction Styles

ritual style

Ritual style is usually given by some culture. A person accustomed to a different ritual, having received such a response that goes beyond his cultural notions, will be puzzled how to interact further. This style is usually given by the culture in which the person lives. In it we realize ourselves as a product of society. The main task of this type of communication is to maintain connection with the environment, to maintain the idea of ​​us as members of society. At the same time, we need a partner as an attribute to perform a certain ritual. For example, greeting, saying goodbye, throwing on the go to a friend: “How are you?” - we just adhere to the traditional foundations of society, by and large, we are not obligated to anything

	End of table 5.4
imperative style	This is an authoritarian, directive form of interaction. It combines authoritarian and liberal communication. The purpose of the imperative style is to achieve control over the behavior of another, over his attitudes or coercion to certain actions and decisions. Orders, instructions and demands are used as means of exerting influence. The spheres where imperative communication is used quite effectively are the relations “chief-subordinate”, military statutory relations, work in extreme conditions.
Manipulative style	The manipulative style of action will manifest itself in building such relationships in which the partner is assigned the role of an opponent who needs to be beaten, deceived. If the goal of imperative communication - to gain control over the behavior and thoughts of another person - is not veiled in any way, then when using the manipulative style, the influence on the interlocutor is carried out covertly. In manipulative communication, the interlocutor is perceived not as an integral person, but as a carrier of certain qualities necessary for the manipulator. At the same time, the interlocutor is shown only what will help in achieving the goal. The winner will be the one who turns out to be more resourceful manipulator. Good knowledge of the partner, understanding of the goals, possession of communication techniques can help in this. Most professional tasks can be solved if you successfully use a manipulative style of communication. At the same time, a person who has chosen manipulative communication as the main style of communication eventually begins to perceive himself fragmentarily, switching to stereotypical forms of behavior. At the same time, the use of manipulative skills in one area (for example, in business) usually ends with the transfer of these skills to all other areas of a person’s life.
humanistic style	The humanistic style of action presupposes communication based on the equality of partners, presupposes a high culture of communication and communicative competence. This is a personal attitude that allows you to satisfy the human need for understanding, empathy, sympathy. The success of communication in this case largely depends on the individual. These are equal interactions that allow mutual understanding to be achieved through a dialogical relationship. This style includes all varieties of dialogical communication: it is an equal interaction, the purpose of which is mutual knowledge, self-knowledge. An example here can be intimate communication, communication between a doctor and a patient, pedagogical communication. The humanistic style of communication is devoid of the imperative and allows you to achieve deep mutual understanding.

The listed styles of communication are just a tendency, an orientation towards certain relationships. But this does not mean at all that only with the help of one of them a person is able to fulfill himself.