The concept of "psychological counseling" in domestic and foreign psychology. Psychological counseling Approaches to psychological counseling of foreign psychology

The aims of psychoanalysis focus mainly on personal adaptation, usually bringing about a reorganization of the inner forces of the personality. The primary goal is to help the client become more aware of the unconscious side of his personality. The unconscious includes repressed memories and desires that are too painful or threatening that the client has ever experienced. But suppressing thoughts does not eliminate their influence; suppression only makes identifying those thoughts more difficult. Psychoanalysis seeks to help clients understand themselves.

The second goal is to help the client overcome a previously unexplored stage of development. After passing this stage, clients are liberated and acquire the ability to live more productively.

Adlerian approach to counseling - Alfred Adler

The goals of Adler counseling are grouped around helping people develop a healthy lifestyle:

developing clients' ideas about what is considered a healthy lifestyle,

helping clients overcome feelings of inadequacy.

support clients in the formation of social interest.

social interest- internal potential "which must be consciously developed and assimilated." Wrong lifestyle is considered egocentric, based on false goals and misconceptions and associated with feelings of inferiority (congenital physical or mental defects, as well as family atmosphere: spoiled by parents or rejection). It is necessary to correct such feelings and get rid of unwanted forms of behavior. Adler counseling focuses on the whole person

Person-Centered Counseling Carl Rogers

The goals of person-centered counseling focus on the client's personality, not on the client's problem. People need to be helped to learn how to cope with circumstances.

One of the main ways is to help the client learn to live a full life, to become a person who does not need to use defense mechanisms on a daily basis.

Such a person begins to strive more for change and growth. He becomes more open to the assimilation of experience, trusts his own perception more, becomes more deeply involved in self-knowledge and evaluation of his "I". A fully functioning person begins to relate better to himself and others and makes operational decisions more effectively.

The client is helped to identify, use and integrate their own resources and potential.

Existential Counseling - Rollo May, Viktor Frankl.

The goals of existential counseling are to help clients understand the meaning of responsibility, awareness, freedom, and potential. The client gets rid of the role of an observer of events and becomes the creator of meaningful personal activity.

The client becomes more aware of personal freedom. For clients, the main goal of counseling is to move from an external frame of reference to an internal one. Activity ceases to depend on the judgments of other people; actions will be primarily evaluated by the clients themselves.

Gestalt Therapy - Fritz Perls

Goals include focusing on the here-and-now and awareness of direct experience. Other goals of Gestalt therapy:

draw the client's attention to non-verbal and verbal expression, as well as to the client's assimilation of the general idea that life involves making choices.

helping the client in resolving the problems of the past so that he can achieve the internal integrity of the personality.

the realization of spiritual growth, which includes the integration of the emotional, cognitive and behavioral aspects of a person. The main task is the reconciliation of polarities in a person.

Perls created a formula that expresses the essence of this word: "This hour = experience = awareness = reality. The past is no more, the future is not yet. There is only the present ».

In order to act "now", to show maturity, a person must periodically shed neurotic tendencies. Perls identifies five layers of neurosis that potentially interfere with authenticity in self-contact:

• fake,
• phobia,
• feeling of hopelessness
• implicitness (agreement),
• explosiveness (temper).
• Cognitive Therapy - A. Beka

Beck focuses on the importance of changing thoughts when working with mental disorders. According to his approach, there are six cognitive biases that the counselor should be prepared for:

1. unfounded conclusions
2. electoral Abstraction,
3. overgeneralization,
4. exaggeration and understatement
5. personalization,
6. dichotomous thinking

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy by Albert Ellis

The main goal of RETP is to help people realize that they can live more rationally and productively. "In a first approximation, rational-emotive therapy is an attempt to eliminate unwanted emotions by correcting errors in the client's reasoning logic."

Many believe that desires must be fulfilled and that if desires remain unfulfilled, the result will be disastrous. RETP helps clients stop making such demands and turning failure into a "catastrophe". In RETP, clients may express some negative feelings, but the main goal is to help them avoid overreacting emotionally to the event.

RETP encourages clients to be more tolerant of themselves and others and to achieve personal goals. These goals are achieved by teaching people rational thinking in order to change harmful behavior and help them learn new ways of doing things.

Transactional Analysis - Eric Berne

TA's main goals focus on helping clients transform themselves from "frogs" into "princes and princesses." It is not enough for a person to simply learn to adapt, as is customary in psychoanalysis. Instead, the focus is on achieving health and autonomy.

By becoming autonomous, clients show more understanding, openness and immediacy, become free from games and get rid of non-constructive scenarios. They begin to interact better with their past, but at the same time remain free from the negative influences of the past. TA emphasizes the study of one's own "I", in order to decide what a person wants to become.

Behavioral Approach - B.F. Skinner

In general, behaviorists (with the exception of representatives of the cognitive-behavioral direction) concentrate on behavioral processes, that is, processes that are closely related to apparent behavior.

Behaviorists focus on the here-and-now situation as opposed to the there-and-then situation.

The goals of behaviorists are to help clients better adjust to life's circumstances and achieve personal and professional goals. Counseling focuses on changing or eliminating maladaptive behaviors exhibited by clients, thus helping them learn healthy, constructive ways of acting. It is not enough to just eliminate unwanted behavior; unproductive actions must be replaced by productive ways of responding.

Cognitive Behavioral Theory

In order for learning to occur, it is necessary that the person actively participates in this process. If a person is rewarded or punished for some activity, then he, as a result, learns to distinguish those actions that bring a reward from those that lead to punishment (or lack of reward).

The person will then seek behaviors that are rewarded and avoid behaviors that are either punished or unrewarded. When certain actions are immediately followed reinforcements(reward), increases the possibility of repeating these actions in such or identical circumstances.

People are not shaped by the environment as much as they are shaped by rewards and punishments. The consequences of a particular action determine whether that action is learned and repeated.

Reality Therapy - William Glasser

The main goal of reality therapy is to help clients become psychologically strong, practical, to help them choose how to relate to themselves and others. People become independent and responsible for activities that affect themselves and others.

The growing complexity and increasing pace of general economic changes and business conditions give rise to specific problems, in the solution of which, more and more often, Russian entrepreneurs need the help of consultants. In this situation, the popularity of consulting activities has led to the fact that, until recently, most consultants did not follow any specific strategy and tried to respond to any request from a potential client. However, even now a growing number of consultants understand that they cannot be everything for all clients, that the chance to receive an order increases if a unique service is offered. But here, in addition to the growth of competition among consultants, another question arises - what are the principles for the formation of a consulting service and what are the criteria for its evaluation.

It has been repeatedly pointed out that professional services produce intangible products or products. Consulting product - advice that is given to the client or, if the main focus is on the implementation and change that actually takes place in the organization of the client's work "and is due to the intervention of the consultant. Such a product is difficult to characterize, measure and evaluate. The consultant may have his own opinion and idea about it, while the customer's point of view on the same product and its real value is probably completely different.

Therefore, consultants are reluctant to clearly define their products. Some fear that this will limit them and prevent them from seeking and finding new opportunities in areas they have not covered. Others prefer to consider each opportunity for a new assignment on its merits and decide whether or not to accept it without any product definition in advance. In general, when selling his services on the market, the consultant actually sells only a promise to help the client meet his needs, and the client is deprived of the elementary opportunity to evaluate the offered product and is forced only to assume about the consultant's capabilities and build relationships with him on exceptional trust.

However, both clients and consultants increasingly want to "increase the tangibility" of the consulting process in order to improve sales, planning, management, and control on the part of both the client and the consultant. There are four different ways to define an advisory item.

Option 1. - functional or subject areas of intervention.

This variant, common in the past and still widely used in the present, defines the consultant's services in the functional or technical areas in which he can help the client. The main thing here is to have a quality education and wide experience in this field. Examples are finance, marketing, production management or general management.

And although such a product definition indicates an area of ​​expertise, it does not have a specific focus if the subject area is broad.

It does not specify what quality is a feature of this consultant, what are his strengths and how he differs from others. It says nothing about the methods of his work, about the results that he wants to get with the intervention.

Option 2 - management and business problems.

This option defines services for typical business and management issues faced by clients. The main thing here is the ability to help in solving problems and the corresponding special qualifications. For example, the rationalization of information flows, the emergence of the possibility of creating a joint venture and negotiations on its creation, agreements on the transfer of technical achievements, etc. It is expected that the consultant will analyze and issue a solution favorable to the client.

Option 3 - special methods and systems.

In this case, the consultant develops and offers clients his own (often unique) approach to solving the problem, which is expressed in the form of special methods, models or management systems. This may be (though not necessarily) a proprietary system that cannot be obtained from anyone else. Of course, the consultant does not just implement a standard system. As a rule, the assignment includes a preliminary study in order to diagnose the problem, adapt the basic, standard, system to the client's conditions and help in its implementation and appropriate training of personnel. This may include further maintenance and improvements to the system, which lays the foundation for a long-term consultant-client relationship. Moreover, a consultant who has developed a special system can be considered an authority on applying a standard, obviously effective approach to a certain type of problems that are relatively easy to identify and structure.

Option 4 - application of the counseling methodology.

In this case, the consultant tries to make his output more tangible and accurate by providing the client with a description of his methodological approach and identifying problems in client organizations and helping them plan and implement changes.

It emphasizes not the content or end result of the counseling process, but the approach and the fact that the client will be able to master the methodology for diagnosing his problems in the future. The proposed product becomes the method itself.

Other options.

Services other than consulting per se, such as management development, technical training, research, design, data development, etc., are being considered among other options. Accordingly, the above-mentioned consulting options are supplemented by similar services, which is welcomed by clients.

However, none of the options provides a comprehensive solution to the customer's problems. For example, the issue of confidentiality No client feels absolute trust in a consultant, and, accordingly, the consulting process often takes place in a mode of information limitation, and this cannot but affect the final result.

To this should be added a number of psychological barriers of the customer. Many are generally unwilling to acknowledge the need for consultant intervention, as this can lower the self-esteem of managers. Often, a potential client is concerned that others (subordinates, colleagues, superiors or even competitors) will consider the presence of a consultant as an admission of incompetence. For customers, doubts about the ability of a person from the outside to solve complex problems are typical, which the management of the organization unsuccessfully tried to overcome. Some believe that the consultant will not bother looking for a solution that will fix the situation for a long time, but instead he will try to apply one of his standard packages. In the eyes of some clients, the consultant looks like a too curious subject who collects too much information, which he can then use against them.

Sometimes you hear about how easy it is to hire a consultant, but it is very difficult to get rid of it. It is argued that consultants carry out the received tasks in such a way that new ones inevitably appear. This can lead to permanent dependence on the consulting firm.

And it goes without saying that clients sometimes completely ignore how the amount of a consultant's fee is determined and how it is justified, as well as what benefits it can be compared with. Such clients believe that using a consultant is a luxury that they cannot afford.

How to be in such a situation for the customer, who, on the one hand, is tormented by fears and doubts, and on the other hand, is concerned about the effective solution of his problems?

Taking into account the specifics of modern consulting practice and not always unfounded doubts of customers, the creative team headed by the authors of the article attempted to create a specialized short-term training and consulting program focused on the field of personnel management.

If you try to look at the process of counseling as a whole, then it can be represented as a set of activities carried out by the consultant and aimed at helping the client to perceive, understand and influence the course of events occurring in the client's environment.

Therefore, the creative concept of this program was turned to the idea of ​​building a "self-learning organization" - an organization that creates learning conditions for all its employees and is itself continuously transformed. According to a number of experts, it is precisely such an organization that has the necessary level of adaptability to the dynamic development of external conditions and is able to operate in the paradigm of “preventive” management.

In this context, the consultant acts as a coach, preparing the organization for real “competitions” in the external environment, where the organization will have to make decisions, develop a strategy of action and implement tactical steps on its own. Moreover, we are talking about the development of long-term adaptive skills that allow the organization to independently cope with emerging difficulties and problems in almost all areas of activity for a long time. The program is aimed at senior and middle management and is based on changing traditional ideas about managerial roles. The implication is that managers must reorganize their activities at three levels.

The program implementation technology is based on an andragogical approach to organizational learning, during which an exploratory approach to solving customer problems is implemented, as opposed to a hierarchical one - typical and generally accepted, i.e. approach in which the activity of the consultant is based on the dominance of the highest level in the course of information exchange, evaluation and prescription. The research approach implies the opposite, the customer brings a significant share of his previous experience to the change process; discusses with the consultant the curriculum and the availability of the consultant in the process of organizational changes; determines the result of organizational changes, agreed with the consultant, the relationship with which is built on the basis of cooperation and mutual exchange of ideas.

The duration of the program is 3 months. During this time, the consultant "gets used" to the organization, where he acts as the initiator of changes and is present in the system as an observer.

Of course, such an approach to counseling requires appropriate training of the consultant. Namely. The consultant should monitor the influence of the following factors: agreement on a detailed diagnosis of the problem with the client; the possibility of strengthening the willingness and ability of the client to implement changes; the iterative nature of communication should provide the opportunity to adjust and modify the strategy and goals of change along the way; striving for stability as a desirable consequence of change; the ability and ability to resist pressure from the client, often striving to get premature and hasty decisions. Therefore, the program is supplemented with specially developed methodological applications that help the consultant navigate the process of implementing the program, and trainings for teachers-trainers.

CONCLUSION

From the study of the current topic of the course work, it should be noted that the need for consulting services does not depend on the form of ownership of the organization or type of business. The demand for consultant services is determined not by the type of owner, but first by his real needs of the enterprise in services of this kind and, of course, by the business qualities of the managers of this enterprise. Today, the market clearly sees the demand for the services of consultants from those enterprises that are headed by strong managers who understand the value of professional consulting assistance. The consultant is valuable not only because he performs a one-time project, but because he helps the company to establish effective independent everyday work. In this regard, enterprises primarily need a comprehensive restructuring, the main focus of which is on creating a strategy and reforming the business model, setting up regular management procedures, setting up a financial management and management accounting system, and setting up the company's marketing activities. From the study of this work, it became clear why consulting companies are needed and what they can give their clients, how they help companies using their services develop.

As in other organizations, consulting companies have their own, as yet unresolved problems and tasks, such as:

1. Formation of understanding among entrepreneurs of the place and role of professional consultants in the development of a successful business.

2. Formation of professional standards, ethical norms and rules of conduct in the consulting services market.

3. Increasing the professional level of consultants.

4. Protection of professional and other interests of consultants.

5. Participation in the development and implementation of complex investment projects and specific regional programs.

6. Cooperation with Russian and foreign consulting firms and trade unions.

7. Institutionalization of the consultant profession.

Solving the problems of consultants is the main task. Due to undeveloped demand in the consulting business, there is no competition on quality, so the rivalry between companies is now in line with attracting new clients for consulting in general, and not their transition to a more professional consultant.

Teamwork and interpersonal skills required by staff (giving and receiving feedback, conflict resolution, understanding the values ​​of difference, collegiality);

Skills to actively fight for quality, including the ability to identify problems and implement improvements.

Of course, the program is not a panacea for all organizational troubles and problems. However, the authors of the program remain confident that this kind of strengthening of organizational structures will help the enterprise weather the storms raging in the modern market and involve employees in the problems of the enterprise, increase labor productivity and living standards.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Aleshnikova V.I. Using the services of professional consultants: a 17-module program for managers "Managing Organizational Development". - M., 2011.

2. Bobakho V.A. Organizational consulting: a culture of change // Personnel Management, 2012, No. 12.

3. Veltman M., Marshev V.I., Posadsky A.P. Consulting in Russia: an introduction to professional methods of work. M.: 2012.

4. Goncharuk V.A. Marketing consulting. - M., 2013.

5. Elmamev O.K. Management consulting: issues of theory and practice. - Izhevsk, 2015.

7. Korobtsev V.V. Problems of professionalism of management consultants // Management consulting of innovations. Sat. Proceedings, no. 4, 2010.

8. Luzin A.E., Ozira V.Yu. Management consulting firms of capitalist countries M.: Economics, 2015.

9. Makhel K. Management consulting. M.: 2013.

10. Management in Russia and abroad. No. 3 1999, No. 2 2013.

11. Ondrak D. Management consulting program for small businesses//PTIPU, No. 5, 2014.

12. Pestoff V.A. Management Consultant: New Challenges//PtiPU, 2015.

("id":20591,"title":"Russian","name":"ru")

Basic approaches in psychological counseling

Russian language

Credits: 4

discipline program

annotation

This discipline belongs to the cycle of elective disciplines. The study of this discipline is based on the following disciplines:  General psychology. To master the academic discipline, students must have the following knowledge and competencies:  know the basics of general psychology;  have skills in handling scientific literature, including HSE electronic resources;  have the skills of writing essays, homework; The main provisions of the discipline should be used in the future when studying the following disciplines:  all disciplines of the specialization "Psychological counseling and research of personality and family".

Formation of ideas about the specifics of the main areas of psychological counseling and psychotherapy

The objectives of mastering the discipline "Basic approaches in psychological counseling" is to familiarize students with the key areas of psychological counseling and the development of basic knowledge in this area.

Know the basic ideas about a person that underlie various approaches to psychological counseling; goals, expected results of work, techniques used in various schools; the specifics of building contact with clients in psychoanalysis, transactional analysis, cognitive-behavioral approach, existential analysis, family systems and client-centered approaches.

To be able to analyze various areas of psychological counseling, to model possible approaches to psychological support for individuals.

Be aware of the advantages and limitations of various approaches to psychological counseling.

Be aware of the advantages and limitations of various approaches to psychological counseling

Topic 1. Introduction to psychological counseling

The goals and content of psychological counseling, the professional position of a psychologist-consultant. The ratio of psychological counseling and psychotherapy in different approaches. Specificity of approaches to psychological counseling: philosophy of approach, models of personality and interpersonal interactions in the counseling process. Goals and expected results of psychological counseling, criteria for effectiveness, features of the setting, psychological counseling techniques.

Topic 2. Transactional analysis

Brief history and main directions of modern transactional analysis. Transactional-analytical understanding of the goals and stages of the process of psychological counseling. Key philosophical and practical principles of transactional analysis. The idea of ​​ego states and ways to recognize them; application of ego-state analysis in the practice of psychological counseling. Types of transactions and ways to build effective communication. A brief overview of the stages of counseling and relevant techniques: ego state analysis, transaction analysis, game analysis.

Topic 3. Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis as the first "conversational psychotherapy". The main categories of psychoanalysis: consciousness, unconsciousness, libido, infantile sexuality, ego. Topographic and structural models of personality. Ontogeny of ego development: formation of mental structures, stages of psychosexual development, primary and secondary defense processes. Methods of psychoanalysis. Analysis and supportive psychotherapy. The specifics of working with a neurotic, psychotic and borderline personality. An analysis of the case of the rat-man.

Topic 4. Cognitive-behavioral approach

A brief history of the development of the approach. The main directions of CBT. Aims, key ideas and concepts of CBT. Studies on the effectiveness of CBT in dealing with various types of problems. Types of cognitive distortions and techniques for dealing with them. Modern directions of development of CBT.

Topic 5. Existential analysis

Categorical system of existential psychology. Interpretive, systemic, natural science and phenomenological hermeneutics. The place of existential psychotherapy among other psychotherapeutic directions. Existential analysis as an integral model of psychotherapy. Fundamental existential motivations (FM) as prerequisites for the implementation of existence: 1st FM - motivation to endure and accept the conditions of being in the world; 2nd FM - motivation to perceive values ​​and experience the joy of life; 3rd FM - motivation for justice and authenticity; 4th FM - motivation to search for meaning. Recognition of the contents of fundamental existential motivations in the practice of self-knowledge, counseling and psychotherapy. Content and procedural aspects of existential-analytical therapy. Phenomenological diagnosis of mental disorders. Personal existential analysis. Effective factors of existential-analytical psychotherapy. Fundamentals of existential-analytic therapy of anxiety, depressive and hysterical disorders.

Topic 6. Family systems approach

Prerequisites for a systematic approach to family psychotherapy. Family as an open social system. Basic parameters of the family system. Family communication. Family structure: composition, hierarchy, coalitions, roles, cohesion, flexibility, boundaries. Functional and dysfunctional family structures. Stereotypes of interaction. Rules of family interaction. Circularity of family interactions. Linear and circular approaches to the description of family processes. Family life cycle, normative and non-normative family crises. Family history. Methodological principles of systemic family psychotherapy. Basic principles, approaches and techniques of systemic family psychotherapy. The general scheme of psychotherapeutic work with the family. Construction and testing of system hypotheses. Analysis of the interaction cycle. Circular interview. Feedback in family psychotherapy. Psychotherapeutic contract with the family. Direct and paradoxical prescriptions. Working with family history Criteria for the effectiveness of psychotherapy, the completion of family psychotherapy. A brief overview of the main classical and postmodern approaches to systemic psychotherapy, a demonstration of the main techniques.

Topic 7. Client-centered therapy

Necessary and sufficient conditions for psychological counseling: empathy, nonjudgmental acceptance, congruence. The process and types of hearing. Basic principles of active listening. Non-directiveness and return of responsibility to the client. Interaction with "difficult" clients. The counselor's monitoring of their feelings and bringing them into the counseling process (“counselor transparency”). From client-centered therapy to a person-centered approach (social work, education, medicine, design, etc.). Modern directions and areas of practice of the person-centered approach (skills and abilities).

non-blocking Homework

non-blocking Classroom work

Blocking Exam

The method of rounding the resulting grade for the academic discipline: arithmetic (for example, a grade of 4.4 is rounded up to 4, and a grade of 4.5 is rounded to 5).

Intermediate certification (2 module)

0.3 * Classroom work + 0.3 * Homework + 0.4 * Exam

Dryden, W. (1996). Developments in Psychotherapy: Historical Perspectives. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=edsebk&AN=292320

Stewart, I. (1996). Developing Transactional Analysis Counselling. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=edsebk&AN=309843

Radyuk, O. M. (2014). Cognitive-behavioral therapy UD-2014-1725r. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=edsbas&AN=edsbas.6929BAFA

Freud Z.; Per. Hollerbach L. - "I" AND "IT". SELECTED WORKS-M.: Yurayt Publishing House, 2019-165-Anthology of thought-978-5-534-06132-1: -Electronic text // EBS Yurayt - https://biblio-online.ru/book/ya-i- ono-izbrannye-work-441861

Jarvis, M. A., Padmanabhanunni, A., & Chipps, J. (2019). An Evaluation of a Low-Intensity Cognitive Behavioral Therapy mHealth-Supported Intervention to Reduce Loneliness in Older People. International Journal Of Environmental Research And Public Health, 16(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16071305

Lister-Ford, C. (2002). Skills in Transactional Analysis Counselling & Psychotherapy. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=edsebk&AN=258426

Stankovskaya, E. (2014). Emotional experience: applying person-centered approach to the practice of existential analysis / Experiência emocional: aplicando a abordagem centrada na pessoa para a prática da análise existencial / Experiencia emocional: aplicando el enfoque centrado en la persona a la práctica del análisis existencia. Revista Da Abordagem Gestaltica, 20(1), 77–85. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=edssci&AN=edssci.S1809.68672014000100011

Sugarman, L. (2004). Counselling and the Life Course. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=edsebk&AN=251790

Freud, 3. Psychology of the unconscious: a guide / Z. Freud. - 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010. - 400 p. - (Masters of Psychology). - ISBN 978-5-49807-498-6. - Text: electronic. - URL: https://new.znanium.com/catalog/product/[### DO NOT CHANGE!!! ###] - Text: electronic. - URL: http://znanium.com/catalog/product/1054593

Freud, A. Child psychoanalysis: reader / A. Freud. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2003. - 477 p. - (Reader in psychology). - ISBN 5-94723-048-8. - Text: electronic. - URL: https://new.znanium.com/catalog/product/[### DO NOT CHANGE!!! ###] - Text: electronic. - URL: http://znanium.com/catalog/product/1054562

The founder of psychoanalysis was the Austrian doctor - psychopathologist and psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). The main ideas of psychoanalysis are set forth in his works: "Beyond the pleasure principle" (1920), "Mass psychology and analysis of the human "I"" (1921), "I" and "It" (1923). ) and others. Before Freud, classical psychology studied the phenomena of consciousness as they manifested themselves in a healthy person. Freud, as a psychopathologist, exploring the nature and causes of neuroses, came across that area of ​​the human psyche that had not been studied before, but which was of great importance for human life - the unconscious.

The discovery of the unconscious, the study of its structure, influence on individual and social life was the main merit of Z. Freud.

Z. Freud presented the unconscious as a powerful force that opposes consciousness. According to his concept, the human psyche consists of three layers.

The lowest and most powerful layer - "It" (Id) is outside of consciousness. In terms of volume, it is comparable to the underwater part of an iceberg. It contains various biological drives and passions, primarily of a sexual nature, and ideas repressed from consciousness. Then follows a relatively small layer of consciousness - this is the "I" (Ego) of a person. The upper layer of the human spirit - "Super-I" (Super Ego) - is the ideals and norms of society, the sphere of duty and moral censorship. According to Freud, the personality, the human "I" is forced to constantly torment and torn between Scylla and Charybdis - the unconscious condemned "It" and the moral and cultural censorship of the "Super-I". Thus, it turns out that one's own "I" - the consciousness of a person is not "the master in one's own house." It is the sphere of "It", entirely subordinated to the principle of pleasure and pleasure, that, according to Freud, has a decisive influence on the thoughts, feelings and actions of a person.

The task of psychoanalysis, in his opinion, is to transfer the unconscious material of the human psyche into the realm of consciousness and subordinate it to its goals.

Freud believed that psychoanalysis can also be used to explain and regulate social processes. A person does not exist in isolation from other people, in his mental life there is always an "Other" with whom he comes into contact. The mechanisms of mental interaction between various instances in the personality find their analogue in the cultural processes of society.

People, he emphasized, are constantly in a state of fear and anxiety from the achievements of civilization, since they can be used against a person. The feeling of fear and anxiety is intensified by the fact that the social instruments that regulate relations between people in the family, society and the state oppose them as alien and incomprehensible forces. However, in explaining these phenomena, Freud focuses not on the social organization of society, but on the natural tendency of man to aggression and destruction. The contradictions between culture and the inner aspirations of a person lead to neuroses. Since culture is the property of not one person, but the whole mass of people, the problem of collective neurosis arises.

33. Rational-emotive behavioral counseling.

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy by Albert Ellis

The main goal of RETP is to help people realize that they can live more rationally and productively. "In a first approximation, rational-emotive therapy is an attempt to eliminate unwanted emotions by correcting errors in the client's reasoning logic."

Many believe that desires must be fulfilled and that if desires remain unfulfilled, the result will be disastrous. RETP helps clients stop making such demands and turning failure into a "catastrophe". In RETP, clients may express some negative feelings, but the main goal is to help them avoid overreacting emotionally to the event.

RETP encourages clients to be more tolerant of themselves and others and to achieve personal goals. These goals are achieved by teaching people rational thinking in order to change harmful behavior and help them learn new ways of doing things.

Indications for rational-emotional therapy. A. Alexandrov identifies the following categories of clients who can be shown rational-emotional therapy:

Clients with poor adjustment, mild anxiety, and marital problems;

Sexual disorders;

neuroses;

Disorders of character;

School truants, child delinquents and adult delinquents;

Borderline Personality Disorder Syndrome;

Psychotic clients, including patients with hallucinations when in contact with reality;

Individuals with mild forms of mental retardation;

Clients with psychosomatic problems.

Ellis explains. The client experiences anxiety during a psychological session. The psychologist may focus on exciting events in the client's life that seem to cause anxiety. For example, a client can be shown that his mother constantly pointed out his shortcomings, that he was always afraid that teachers would scold him for a bad answer in class, that he was afraid to talk to authority figures who might not approve of him, etc. Therefore, because of all his past and present fears in situations A-1, A-2, A-3…A-n, he is now experiencing anxiety during a conversation with a psychologist. As a result of this analysis, the client may say to himself: “Yes, now I understand that I experience anxiety when I encounter authority figures. No wonder I'm anxious even with my own psychologist!" After that, the client may feel much better and temporarily relieve anxiety.

34. Cognitive theoretical approach in psychological counseling Psychological counseling is an applied branch of modern psychology. In the system of psychological science, its task is to develop theoretical foundations and applied programs for providing psychological assistance to mentally and somatically healthy people in situations where they are faced with their own problems.

The specifics of psychological counseling is the emphasis on dialogue, on the circulation of information, on the exchange of information between the psychologist-consultant and those people regarding whom psychological counseling is used. Tasks: Listening to the client. Relief of the emotional state of the client. Acceptance by the client of responsibility for what is happening to him. Assistance from a psychologist in determining what exactly and how can be changed in a situation. The purpose of psychological counseling is defined as the provision of psychological assistance, that is, a conversation with a psychologist should help a person in solving his problems and establishing relationships with others. The purpose of psychological counseling according to R. Kociunas:

to promote a change in the client's behavior or a change in attitude to the situation, to help the client experience the pleasure of life and live productively; develop skills to overcome life's difficulties; ensure effective decision-making;

develop the ability to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships;

facilitate the realization and increase of the potential of the individual. Principles of psychological counseling: benevolent and invaluable attitude towards the client; focus on the norms and values ​​of the client; careful attitude to advice; distinction between personal and professional relationships; the involvement of the client and the psychologist in the counseling process.

cognitive approach.

It goes back to the works of A. Beck and relies on ideas about the decisive role of thinking, cognitive (cognitive) processes in the origin of disorders. Like the psychodynamic approach, he addresses the implicit, hidden causes of disorders and, like the behavioral approach, to maladaptive behavioral stereotypes. But the focus of this approach is not on the dynamics of the main mental forces and experiences and not on stimulus-reactive chains, but on thought patterns: any response to external circumstances is mediated by the internal organization of mental processes, thought patterns. Failure of these patterns triggers "negative cognitive circuits", which is fundamentally comparable to programming errors and viral distortions of computer programs.

Various schools within this approach emphasize the importance of individual cognitive styles, cognitive complexity, cognitive balance, cognitive dissonance, etc. The goals and objectives of psychotherapy are focused on "reprogramming" thinking and cognitive processes as a mechanism for the emergence of problems and the formation of symptoms. The range of methods is very wide - from rational psychotherapy according to P. Dubois to rational-emotive psychotherapy by A. Ellis. Like the behavioral approach, the cognitive approach is based on the directive position of the therapist.

Goals and objectives of psychological counseling. Approaches to psychological counseling
in domestic psychology

In order to consciously advance in any type of activity, you must first determine your goal, and then plan this activity, outlining tasks, the consistent implementation of which will lead to the desired goal. This is true for psychological counseling as well.

The goals and objectives of psychological counseling can be defined in different ways - depending on the approach to psychological counseling within which we prefer to work.

Aleshina Yulia Evgenievna (1994) main goal psychological counseling determines which indication psychological help, that is, a conversation with a psychologist should help a person in solving his problems and establishing relationships with others. For this purpose, the following tasks:

· one. Listening to the client, as a result of which his idea of ​​\u200b\u200bhimself and his own situation should expand, and food for thought should appear.

2. Relief of the client's emotional state, that is, thanks to the work of a psychologist-consultant, the client should feel better.

3. Acceptance by the client of responsibility for what happens to him. This means that during the consultation, the focus of the client’s complaint should be transferred to him, the person should feel his responsibility and guilt for what is happening, only in this case he will really try to change and change the situation, otherwise he will only expect help and changes from those around you. The minimum program here is to show the client that he himself, at least in part, contributes to the fact that his problems and relationships with people are so complex and negative.

· 4. Assistance from a psychologist in determining what exactly and how can be changed in a situation.

Looking at the above list of tasks, it is easy to see that the second and third tasks are opposites of each other. If we want to alleviate the emotional state of the client, then we will involuntarily begin to say that he is not to blame for what happened, that we cannot ascribe so much responsibility to ourselves for what is happening - not everything depends on us, all people tend to make mistakes. And, conversely, if we want to encourage the client to take responsibility for everything that happens to him, we will notice that this inevitably leads at the same time to a deterioration in his emotional state. The psychologist-consultant is forced to balance between the two poles set by these tasks. In each case, he must independently decide which of these tasks is more relevant. There are situations when the topic of responsibility and guilt should not be discussed with the client at all, for example, if the client has suffered a serious loss. Here it is necessary to correct inadequate ideas, to remove the burden of guilt and responsibility.

Let us consider how the question of the goals and objectives of psychological counseling is solved in other approaches to psychological counseling developed within the framework of the domestic psychological tradition.

Abramova Galina Sergeevna (2001, p. 186) determines the goal of psychological counseling to be the culturally productive personality of the client, so that the person has a sense of perspective, acts consciously, is able to develop various behavior strategies and analyze the situation from various points of view. In this regard, the main task of the psychologist-consultant G.S. Abramova sees it in creating conditions for a normal, mentally healthy client in which he would begin to create conscious non-standard ways of action that would allow him to act in accordance with the possibilities of culture.

Kociunas Rimantas-Antanas Bronevich (1999) is in close positions. The purpose of psychological counseling, from his point of view, is the emergence of the client's features of a mature personality. The primary task here is the emergence of mature personality traits in the consultant psychologist himself. These features Kociunas R.-A. B. describes in detail (1999, pp. 25-32). In many ways, the appearance of these features in the consultant Kociunas R.-A. B. connects with a variety of style of personal and professional life of a counseling psychologist.

Obozov N.N. (1993), as we have already said, the psychologist's goal in counseling was to clarify to the client the causes and consequences of life situations. The task here will be to bring to the client psychological information relevant to his problems. This task gives rise to another one - the study of the individual psychological characteristics of the client, in order, based on them, to correctly convey this information, to take into account what and in what form the person is ready to accept. In this regard, Obozov N.N. laid the foundations for a typology of clients, outlined adequate ways of behavior in relation to different types of clients of psychologists-consultants.

Florenskaya Tamara Alexandrovna (1994) called her approach to psychological counseling spiritually oriented approach. As the main task facing the psychologist-consultant, she calls the task of helping the client to realize the reality of his "Spiritual Self". In the personality structure of T.A. Florenskaya distinguishes two formations:

· 1. "Empirical everyday I" - the focus of in vivo acquired personality traits.

From the point of view of T.A. Florenskaya, the highest manifestations of love, readiness for self-sacrifice, the ability to overcome the instinct of self-preservation for the sake of a higher meaning - a manifestation of the "spiritual self" of a person.

The "Spiritual Self" may not be realized or vaguely realized, but even being unconscious, it can lead a person if his attitudes do not contradict the voice of his "Spiritual Self". The form of coexistence of the “Spiritual Self” and the “Empirical Ordinary Self” is an internal dialogue. The “Spiritual Self” and the “Empirical Ordinary Self” often come into conflict, which can result in the displacement of the “Spiritual Self” from consciousness, the refusal to listen to its voice. The symptoms of such a repression are dissatisfaction that torments a person, the meaninglessness of existence, and an unwillingness to live.

Florenskaya T.A. described the conditions under which a person can return to the realization of the reality of his "Spiritual Self", begin to live in accordance with its requirements. Firstly, as a result of sympathetic listening to the client, he himself can return to the position of his "Spiritual Self". If this does not happen, then the psychologist, secondly, can act as follows. Hearing an internal dialogue in the client's story, the counselor-psychologist takes the supposed position of the client's "Spiritual Self" in this dialogue, thus awakening and confirming his own spiritual knowledge. An important condition for working here is the “outside position” - the psychologist should not stoop to the arguments of the client’s “Empirical everyday Self”, take the position they offer.

Kopiev Andrey Feliksovich (1992, 1991) called his approach to counseling dialogic. The goal of working with a client within the framework of this approach, as can be seen from the works of A.F. Kopiev, is the achievement of the highest degrees of dialogical communication, when it is possible to fix the moment of self-discovery of the personality in the most sincere discussion of significant personal problems. At the same time, the discussion becomes a research field, allowing one to touch the most profound and intimate patterns of inner life and interpersonal communication.

The first task on the way to this is to achieve a "dialogical breakthrough", that is, the moment when the painful self-isolation of the individual in relation to the essential aspects of being is overcome. Signs of self-isolation are the fear of self-disclosure, discomfort from the feeling that you will have to move on to communication, deeper, more personal, it is possible to change in the process of this communication. A person is afraid of the dynamics inside his personality and outside it, he has almost lost his plasticity. He clings to his rigidity learned in the process of life and is afraid of losing it. The psychologist, being ready for dialogue, induces the client to it. The client's state of self-isolation should be replaced by a state of dialogic intention - readiness to seriously and with full dedication discuss and solve their problems here and now, with this consultant. The states of closedness, self-closure are the states of blockade of the dialogic intention. An example of such a blockade can be increased talkativeness.

Kopiev A.F. described several typical and not always recognizable forms of blockade of dialogic intention by novice psychologists:

· one. Psychological intoxication. It looks like a completely unproductive, speculative interest in psychology and psychotherapy. Awareness and presentation of oneself in terms of certain psychological concepts becomes an effective means to avoid responsibility for one's life, to withdraw one's behavior from the zone of action of moral categories. Akin to the usual explanation "Wednesday stuck." The true circumstances of life, actions, thoughts, feelings are more or less noisy psychological diagnosis. The man has given up his will. Turning to a psychologist performs a protective function - it allows the client not to change anything, relieving him of responsibility for the absurdities and disorder of his life, but at the same time reflects a person's underlying dissatisfaction and anxiety about what is happening in his destiny.

2. Aestheticization of personal problems. A person perceives his problems, hardships and "complexes" as an aesthetic value, as something that gives his personality significance and depth. This is also due to the ubiquity of cinema and television - the "dream factory". As a result, a person possessed by another, a double, cannot live for himself. Clients talk about "stages of a long journey", report that "this is the material for a novel." A person becomes, as it were, insane, away from himself.

3. Manipulation-predilection. The client is fixed on manipulating other people, his life is an active search for ways to achieve his goals in relation to certain people from his environment. The desired goal captures the client so much that it puts him, as it were, out of ethics. In a psychologist, such a client is looking for an instructor who would teach him perfect manipulation techniques. At the heart of such behavior, as a rule, lies deep disappointment, despair. The client does not believe that people are able to accept and love him for who he really is, so he resorts to manipulation.

As one of the ways to work with situations of blockade of dialogic intention, A.F. Spears suggests using silence. The consultant must maintain "mental autonomy" and not be included in the game offered by the client. The fundamental deficit of significant reactions of the psychologist in relation to the statements and reactions of the client, which are artificial, playful in nature, creates between them, as it were, a "free space" that encourages the client to self-disclosure and self-determination.

Kapustin Sergey Alexandrovich (1993) sees the main goal of psychological counseling in destruction of the polarity of the evaluative position. An evaluative position is a biased attitude of a person to his life, which sets its target orientation, the subjective significance of the realization of certain life goals for the person himself. The polarity of the evaluative position means that a person recognizes for himself the realization of only some of the vital requirements and devalues ​​the realization of the opposite ones. The polarity of the evaluative position is most often imposed on a person by his social environment, it is not the result of his free self-determination. At the same time, a person refuses free self-determination in life, consciously rejects the demands of life that are in opposition to the evaluative position.

Ermine P.P. and Vaskovskaya S.V. (1995) define their approach to psychological counseling as problem. They see the purpose of the work of a psychologist-consultant in solving their psychological problems by the client. The emphasis here is on the word "problems". Problems are put at the center of the work and are seen not as a hindrance, but as driving forces for the development of the client's personality. A person who has psychological difficulties mainly concentrates his efforts in the plane of emotionally rich images and experiences. He feels discomfort and seeks to get rid of it. He is often far from thinking that it is possible that he is faced with a problem, there is a positive meaning for him. The task of the psychologist is to help the client find this meaning. Attention is drawn to the fact that as a result of overcoming problems, a person enriches his experience, harmonizes his life.

Note that these psychologists are the authors of another interesting manual, only their names on the cover of this manual have changed places - Vaskovskaya S.V., Gornostai P.P. (1996). This manual provides examples of psychological counseling in relation to a significant number of counseling situations, provides various options for working for each situation, depending on the results of the diagnosis. This book can be found, for example, in the Russian State Library.

Masterov Boris Mikhailovich (1998) calls his approach to psychological counseling reconstructive. The primary task of the psychologist-consultant within the framework of this approach is the reconstruction in the situation "here and now" of a fragment of the client's subjective picture of the world that is related to his problem. The next task of the psychologist-consultant is to draw the attention of the client to any aspects of his subjective picture of the world and experience that he had not previously noticed, did not analyze, did not consider. This helps the client gain a new experience in the reconstructed reality, which can be defined within this approach as the goal of counseling.

Masterov B.M. singled out and described the basic elements of the subjective picture of the world, which make it possible to facilitate and systematize the process of isolating deep categories in the client's text. This is, first of all, space, time and evaluation. The worlds are distinguished: feelings and emotional states, bodily sensations, rules, norms and obligations, relations, images; physical, aesthetic, psychological, symbolic and other worlds.

Yupitov A.V. (1995) put forward an interesting goal for psychological counseling in relation to the characteristics of psychological counseling at a university - the impact on the sphere of value-semantic orientations of the individual, the mediation of current instrumental actions in different situations based on the leading values ​​of the individual and the correction of current behavior in accordance with these values. For example, is it worth it to quarrel with even an incompetent teacher if it closes the way to a diploma and to a subsequent activity that makes a lot of sense to you. Progress towards this goal puts forward the task of studying the value-semantic orientations of the individual at the diagnostic stage of counseling.

Menovshchikov V.Yu. (1998) defines the goal of psychological counseling as adaptation to life through the activation of vital resources. Psychological counseling he defines as a solution to a thinking-oriented problem. People rarely see their predicament as a task oriented thinking. This may be their mistake. The need for thinking arises when, in the course of life, a person faces a new goal, new circumstances and conditions of activity, and the old means and methods of activity are insufficient to achieve them. With the help of mental activity, originating in a problem situation, it is possible to create new ways, means to achieve goals and satisfy needs. It is in problematic situations that the need for counseling arises. This approach to psychological counseling puts forward the task of mastering special knowledge in the psychology of thinking, the skills of activating thinking. The stages of psychological counseling within the framework of this approach coincide with the stages of the thought process.

5. general characteristics insight-oriented approaches in psychological counseling. Psychological counseling. There is also no single understanding of this term. In its most general form, counseling is understood as professional assistance to a person or a group of people (for example, an organization) in finding ways to resolve or solve a specific difficult or problematic situation and is currently widely used in various areas of human practice: school counseling, family counseling, professional counseling, organizational consulting. All these types of counseling, as a rule, include both psychological and socio-psychological aspects related to interpersonal interaction, group dynamics, and psychological aspects of management. Actually, psychological counseling is traditionally considered as a process aimed at helping a person to resolve (find ways to resolve) the problems and difficulties of a psychological nature that arise in him. There are three main approaches to psychological counseling: a) problem-oriented counseling, which focuses on the analysis of the essence and external causes of the problem, the search for ways to resolve it; b) personality-oriented counseling aimed at analyzing the individual, personal causes of problem and conflict situations and ways to prevent them in the future; c) counseling, focused on identifying resources to solve the problem. Obviously, person-centered counseling is close to psychotherapy in its focus.
It is difficult to draw a clear line between the concepts of "psychological counseling" and "psychotherapy". The definition of psychotherapy as work with the sick, and counseling with the healthy, does not fully satisfy even the formal criterion. Psychological counseling is also used in medicine (for example, psychological counseling for pregnant women or patients with somatic and neuroorganic diseases who are not undergoing psychotherapeutic treatment proper, but who seek help in connection with personal problems not directly related to their disease), and psychological work with by persons who have serious personality problems, the content is no different from psychotherapy.
Most authors emphasize rather similarities between psychotherapy and psychological counseling. Psychotherapy and psychological counseling: a) use psychological means of influence; b) perform mainly the functions of development and prevention (and sometimes both treatment and rehabilitation); c) have as their goal the achievement of positive changes in the cognitive, emotional and behavioral spheres in the direction of increasing their effectiveness; d) contain psychological theories as their scientific basis; e) need empirical verification (efficiency study); e) are carried out within a professional framework. There are different views on the differences between psychotherapy and counseling. Thus, Nelson-Jones considers psychological counseling as a psychological process focused on prevention and development. The author distinguishes goals in counseling related to correction (for example, overcoming anxiety or fear) and development (for example, the development of communication skills). From his point of view, counseling is predominantly remedial. Corrective goals ensure the fulfillment of preventive functions. Development is associated with tasks that a person needs to solve at various stages of his life (professional self-determination, separation from parents, the beginning of an independent life, the creation of a family, the realization of one's own capabilities, the disclosure of resources). Great importance is also attached to increasing personal responsibility for one's own life. The ultimate goal of counseling is to teach people how to help themselves and thus teach them to be their own counselors. Nelson-Jones sees the differences between psychotherapy and psychological correction in that psychotherapy focuses on personal (personal) change, and counseling focuses on helping a person make better use of their own resources and improve the quality of life. He also emphasizes that, in contrast to psychotherapy, much of the information gained in counseling is manifested in the mind of the patient in the intervals between sessions, as well as during periods when people are trying to help themselves after the end of counseling.

6. existential counseling.

Existential psychotherapy, as defined by I. Yalom, is a dynamic therapeutic approach that focuses on the basic problems of the existence of the individual. Like any other dynamic approach (Freudian, neo-Freudian), existential therapy is based on a dynamic model of the functioning of the psyche, according to which conflicting forces, thoughts and emotions are present in the individual at different levels of the psyche (consciousness and unconscious), and behavior (both adaptive and psychopathological) represents is the result of their interaction. Such forces in the existential approach are confrontations of the individual with the ultimate givens of existence: death, freedom, isolation and meaninglessness. It is assumed that a person's awareness of these ultimate givens gives rise to suffering, fears and causes anxiety, which, in turn, triggers psychological defenses. Accordingly, it is customary to speak of four existential conflicts:

1. between the realization of the inevitability of death and the desire to continue living;
2. between the awareness of one's own freedom and the need to be responsible for one's life;
3. between awareness of one's own global loneliness and the desire to be part of a larger whole;
4. between the need for some structure, the meaning of life and the realization of the indifference (indifference) of the Universe, which does not offer specific meanings.

Every existential conflict causes anxiety. Moreover, anxiety can either remain normal or develop into a neurotic one. Let us illustrate this point with the example of anxiety arising from human existential vulnerability in relation to death. Anxiety is considered normal if people use the existential threat of death to their advantage as a learning experience and continue to develop. Particularly striking are the cases when, having learned about a fatal illness, a person begins to live his life more meaningfully, productively and creatively. Evidence of neurotic anxiety are psychological defenses. Thus, for example, a terminally ill person experiencing neurotic anxiety may unjustifiably risk his life by displaying manic heroism. Neurotic anxiety also implies repression and is destructive rather than constructive. It should be noted that existential counselors working with anxiety do not try to remove it completely, but rather reduce it to a comfortable level and then use the existing anxiety to increase the client's awareness and vitality.

Gestalt counseling.

Gestalt counseling is based on the analysis of integral structures - gestalts, primary in relation to their components. Gestalt-oriented counseling opposes the structural principle put forward by psychology of dismembering consciousness into elements and building from them - according to the laws of association or creative synthesis - complex mental phenomena.