Germany and the GDR: competition between two economic systems. German Democratic Republic Area of ​​the GDR in sq km

By Masterweb

11.04.2018 22:01

german Democratic Republic, or GDR for short, is a country located in the Center of Europe and indicated on the maps for exactly 41 years. This is the westernmost country of the socialist camp that existed at that time, formed in 1949 and became part of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1990.

German Democratic Republic

In the north, the border of the GDR ran along the Baltic Sea, on land it bordered on the FRG, Czechoslovakia and Poland. Its area was 108 thousand square kilometers. The population was 17 million people. The capital of the country was East Berlin. The entire territory of the GDR was divided into 15 districts. In the center of the country was the territory of West Berlin.

Location of the GDR

On a small territory of the GDR there was a sea, mountains and plains. The north was washed by the Baltic Sea, which forms several bays and shallow lagoons. They are connected to the sea by straits. She owned the islands, the largest of them - Rügen, Usedom and Pel. There are many rivers in the country. The largest are the Oder, Elbe, their tributaries Havel, Spree, Saale, as well as the Main - a tributary of the Rhine. Of the many lakes, the largest are Müritz, Schweriner See, Plauer See.

In the south, the country was framed by low mountains, significantly cut by rivers: from the west, the Harz, from the south-west, the Thuringian Forest, from the south, the Ore Mountains with the highest peak Fichtelberg (1212 meters). The north of the territory of the GDR was located on the Central European Plain, to the south lay the plain of the Macklenburg Lake District. South of Berlin stretches a strip of sandy plains.

East Berlin

It has been restored almost completely. The city was divided into occupation zones. After the creation of the FRG, its eastern part became part of the GDR, and the western part was an enclave surrounded on all sides by the territory of East Germany. According to the constitution of Berlin (Western), the land on which it was located belonged to the Federal Republic of Germany. The capital of the GDR was a major center of science and culture of the country.

The Academies of Sciences and Arts, many higher educational institutions were located here. Concert halls and theaters hosted outstanding musicians and artists from all over the world. Many parks and alleys served as decoration for the capital of the GDR. Sports facilities were erected in the city: stadiums, swimming pools, courts, competition grounds. The most famous park for the inhabitants of the USSR was Treptow Park, in which a monument to the liberator soldier was erected.

Big cities

The majority of the country's population was urban dwellers. In a small country, there were several cities with a population of more than half a million people. The large cities of the former German Democratic Republic, as a rule, had a rather ancient history. These are the cultural and economic centers of the country. The largest cities include Berlin, Dresden, Leipzig. The cities of East Germany were badly destroyed. But Berlin suffered the most, where the fighting went literally for every house.

The largest cities were located in the south of the country: Karl-Marx-Stadt (Meissen), Dresden and Leipzig. Every city in the GDR was famous for something. Rostock, located in northern Germany, is a modern port city. The world-famous porcelain was produced in Karl-Marx-Stadt (Meissen). In Jena, there was the famous Carl Zeiss factory, which produced lenses, including for telescopes, famous binoculars and microscopes were produced here. This city was also famous for its universities and scientific institutions. This is a city of students. Schiller and Goethe once lived in Weimar.

Karl-Marx-Stadt (1953-1990)

This city, founded in the 12th century in the land of Saxony, now bears its original name - Chemnitz. It is the center of textile engineering and textile industry, machine tool building and mechanical engineering. The city was completely destroyed by British and American bombers and rebuilt after the war. There are small islands of old buildings left.

Leipzig

The city of Leipzig, located in Saxony, before the unification of the GDR and the FRG was one of the largest cities in the German Democratic Republic. At 32 kilometers from it is another large city in Germany - Halle, which is located in the land of Saxony-Anhalt. Together, the two cities form an urban agglomeration with a population of 1,100,000 people.

The city has long been the cultural and scientific center of Central Germany. It is known for its universities as well as fairs. Leipzig is one of the most developed industrial regions in East Germany. Since the late Middle Ages, Leipzig has been a recognized center of printing and bookselling in Germany.

The greatest composer Johann Sebastian Bach lived and worked in this city, as well as the famous Felix Mendelssohn. The city is still famous for its musical traditions. Since ancient times, Leipzig has been a major trading center; until the last war, the famous fur trades were held here.

Dresden

The pearl among German cities is Dresden. The Germans themselves call it Florence on the Elbe, as there are many baroque architectural monuments here. The first mention of it was recorded in 1206. Dresden has always been the capital: since 1485 - the Margraviate of Meissen, since 1547 - the Electorate of Saxony.

It is located on the Elbe River. The border with the Czech Republic passes 40 kilometers from it. It is the administrative center of Saxony. Its population is about 600,000 inhabitants.

The city suffered greatly from the bombing of US and British aircraft. Up to 30,000 residents and refugees perished, most of them elderly, women and children. During the bombardment, the castle-residence, the Zwinger complex, and the Semperoper were badly destroyed. Almost the entire historical center lay in ruins.

In order to restore architectural monuments, after the war, all the surviving parts of the buildings were dismantled, rewritten, numbered and taken out of the city. Everything that could not be restored was cleared away.

The old city was a flat area on which most of the monuments were gradually restored. The government of the GDR came up with a proposal to revive the old city, which lasted almost forty years. For residents, new quarters and avenues were built around the old city.

Coat of arms of the GDR

Like any country, the GDR had its own coat of arms, described in Chapter 1 of the constitution. The coat of arms of the German Democratic Republic consisted of a golden hammer superimposed on each other, embodying the working class, and a compass, personifying the intelligentsia. They were surrounded by a golden wreath of wheat, representing the peasantry, intertwined with ribbons of the national flag.

Flag of the GDR

The flag of the German Democratic Republic was an elongated panel consisting of four equal width stripes painted in the national colors of Germany: black, red and gold. In the middle of the flag was the coat of arms of the GDR, which distinguished it from the flag of the FRG.

Prerequisites for the formation of the GDR

The history of the GDR covers a very short period of time, but it is still being studied with great attention by German scientists. The country was in strict isolation from the FRG and the entire Western world. After the surrender of Germany in May 1945, there were occupation zones, there were four of them, since the former state ceased to exist. All power in the country, with all management functions, formally passed to the military administrations.

The transitional period was complicated by the fact that Germany, especially its eastern part, where the German resistance was desperate, lay in ruins. The barbaric bombardments by British and American aircraft were intended to intimidate the civilian population of the cities that were liberated by the Soviet army, to turn them into a heap of ruins.

In addition, there was no agreement between the former allies regarding the vision of the future of the country, and this is what subsequently led to the creation of two countries - the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic.

Basic Principles for the Reconstruction of Germany

Even at the Yalta Conference, the basic principles for the restoration of Germany were considered, which were later fully agreed upon and approved at the conference in Potsdam by the victorious countries: the USSR, Great Britain and the USA. They were also approved by the countries that participated in the war against Germany, in particular France, and contained the following provisions:

• Complete destruction of the totalitarian state.
• Complete ban on the NSDAP and all organizations associated with it.
• The complete liquidation of the punitive organizations of the Reich, such as the SA, SS, SD services, as they were recognized as criminal.
• The army was completely liquidated.
• Racial and political laws were abolished.
• Gradual and consistent implementation of denazification, demilitarization and democratization.

The decision of the German question, which included a peace treaty, was entrusted to the Council of Ministers of the victorious countries. On June 5, 1945, the victorious states promulgated the Declaration of the Defeat of Germany, according to which the country was divided into four occupation zones controlled by the administrations of Great Britain (the largest zone), the USSR, the USA and France. The capital of Germany, Berlin, was also divided into zones. The decision of all issues was entrusted to the Control Council, it included representatives of the victorious countries.

Party of Germany

In Germany, in order to restore statehood, the formation of new political parties that would be democratic in nature was allowed. In the eastern sector, emphasis was placed on the revival of the Communist and Social Democratic Party of Germany, which soon merged into the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (1946). Its goal was to build a socialist state. It was the ruling party in the German Democratic Republic.

In the western sectors, the CDU (Christian Democratic Union) party formed in June 1945 became the main political force. In 1946, the CSU (Christian-Social Union) was formed in Bavaria according to this principle. Their main principle is a democratic republic based on market economy on the rights of private property.

Political confrontations on the issue of the post-war structure of Germany between the USSR and the rest of the coalition countries were so serious that their further aggravation would lead either to a split of the state or to a new war.

Formation of the German Democratic Republic

In December 1946, Great Britain and the United States, ignoring numerous proposals from the USSR, announced the merger of their two zones. She was abbreviated as "Bizonia". This was preceded by the refusal of the Soviet administration to supply agricultural products to the western zones. In response to this, transit shipments of equipment exported from factories and plants in East Germany and located in the Ruhr region to the USSR zone were stopped.

At the beginning of April 1949, France also joined the Bizonia, as a result of which Trizonia was formed, from which the Federal Republic of Germany was subsequently formed. Thus, the Western powers, having entered into an agreement with the big German bourgeoisie, created a new state. In response to this, at the end of 1949, the German Democratic Republic was created. Berlin, or rather its Soviet zone, became its center and capital.

The People's Council was temporarily reorganized into the People's Chamber, which adopted the Constitution of the GDR, which passed a nationwide discussion. 09/11/1949 the first president of the GDR was elected. It was the legendary Wilhelm Pick. At the same time, the government of the GDR was temporarily created, headed by O. Grotewohl. The military administration of the USSR transferred all functions of governing the country to the government of the GDR.

Soviet Union did not want the division of Germany. They were repeatedly made proposals for the unification and development of the country in accordance with the Potsdam decisions, but they were regularly rejected by Great Britain and the United States. Even after the division of Germany into two countries, Stalin made proposals for the unification of the GDR and the FRG, provided that the decisions of the Potsdam Conference were observed and that Germany was not drawn into any political and military blocs. But the Western states refused to do so, ignoring Potsdam's decisions.

The political system of the GDR

The form of government of the country was based on the principle of people's democracy, in which a bicameral parliament operated. The state system of the country was considered to be bourgeois-democratic, in which socialist transformations took place. The German Democratic Republic included the lands of the former Germany of Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.

The lower (people's) chamber was elected by universal secret ballot. The upper house was called the Land Chamber, the executive body was the government, which was composed of the prime minister and ministers. It was formed by appointment, which was carried out by the largest faction of the People's Chamber.

The administrative-territorial division consisted of lands, consisting of districts, divided into communities. The functions of the legislature were carried out by the Landtags, the executive bodies were the governments of the lands.

The People's Chamber - the highest body of the state - consisted of 500 deputies, who were elected by the people by secret ballot for a period of 4 years. It was represented by all parties and public organizations. The People's Chamber, acting on the basis of laws, made the most important decisions on the development of the country, dealt with relations between organizations, observing the rules for cooperation between citizens, state organizations and associations; adopted the main law - the Constitution and other laws of the country.

Economy of the GDR

After the partition of Germany, the economic situation of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was very difficult. This part of Germany was very badly destroyed. The equipment of plants and factories was taken to the western sectors of Germany. The GDR was simply cut off from the historical raw material bases, most of which were in the FRG. There was a shortage of such natural resources as ore and coal. There were few specialists: engineers, executives who left for the FRG, frightened by the propaganda about the cruel reprisal of Russians.

With the help of the Union and other countries of the commonwealth, the economy of the GDR gradually began to gain momentum. Businesses were restored. It was believed that centralized leadership and a planned economy served as a deterrent to the development of the economy. It should be taken into account that the restoration of the country took place in isolation from the western part of Germany, in an atmosphere of tough confrontation between the two countries, open provocations.

Historically, the eastern regions of Germany were mostly agricultural, and in its western part, rich in coal and deposits of metal ores, heavy industry, metallurgy and engineering were concentrated.

Without the financial and material assistance of the Soviet Union, it would have been impossible to achieve an early restoration of industry. For the losses suffered by the USSR during the war years, the GDR paid him reparation payments. Since 1950, their volume has been halved, and in 1954 the USSR refused to receive them.

Foreign policy situation

The construction of the Berlin Wall by the German Democratic Republic became a symbol of the intransigence of the two blocs. The eastern and western blocs of Germany were building up their military forces, provocations from the western bloc became more frequent. It came to open sabotage and arson. The propaganda machine worked at full power, using economic and political difficulties. Germany, like many Western European countries, did not recognize the GDR. The peak of the aggravation of relations occurred in the early 1960s.

The so-called "German crisis" also arose thanks to West Berlin, which, legally being the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany, was located in the very center of the GDR. The border between the two zones was conditional. As a result of the confrontation between NATO blocs and the Warsaw bloc countries, the SED Politburo decides to build a border around West Berlin, which was a reinforced concrete wall 106 km long and 3.6 m high and a metal mesh fence 66 km long. She stood from August 1961 until November 1989.

After the merger of the GDR and the FRG, the wall was demolished, only a small section remained, which became the Berlin Wall memorial. In October 1990, the GDR became part of the FRG. The history of the German Democratic Republic, which existed for 41 years, is intensively studied and researched by scientists of modern Germany.

Despite the propaganda discrediting of this country, scientists are well aware that it gave Western Germany a lot. In a number of parameters, she surpassed her Western brother. Yes, the joy of reunification was genuine for the Germans, but to belittle the importance of the GDR, one of the most developed countries Europe is not worth it, and many in modern Germany understand this very well.

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After the capitulation of Germany, the eastern regions of the country - Saxony, Thuringia, Mecklenburg and Brandenburg - with a territory of 108 thousand square meters. km and a population of 17 million people moved to the zone of occupation of the USSR. Berlin was in the Soviet zone of occupation, but by decision of the Potsdam Conference, it was divided into four zones, three of which were under the control of the Western powers.

At the end of June - July 1945, the main political parties took shape in East Germany - the Communist Party (KPD), the Social Democratic Party (SPD), the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the Liberal Democratic Party (DTsPD). In April 1946, the KPD and the SPD merged into a single party called the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). The ultimate goal of the party was to build socialism in Germany.

Proclamation of the GDR

By order of the SVAG (Soviet Military Administration of Germany), the property of German monopolies, war criminals, and the fascist party was expropriated. On this basis, the foundation of state property was created. Local self-government bodies were created, in which the SED played a leading role. In December 1947, the First German People's Congress took place in Berlin, which advocated the unity of Germany and laid the foundation for a movement for its democratic reorganization. II German People's Congress in 1948. elected the German People's Council as the executive body of the movement. In May 1949, the III German People's Congress approved the text of the constitution, which was to become the basis of the post-war state structure in Germany. On October 7, 1949, the German Democratic Republic was proclaimed. Almost all leadership positions were occupied by representatives of the SED. Wilhelm Pieck, a veteran of the revolutionary movement in Germany, became President of the Republic, and Otto Grotewohl became Prime Minister. The German People's Council was transformed into a temporary People's Chamber (Parliament), which adopted the country's constitution. The constitution approved the dictatorship of the proletariat as the basis of state power. In addition to the SED, there were three other political parties in the GDR - the CDU, the Democratic Peasants' Party of Germany (DKPG) and the National Democratic Party (NPD). Some of them existed formally, while others had no influence. Soon they were done with. During the political struggle, the CDU and LDPG ceased to exist. Their liquidation was followed by elections to the People's Chamber of the GDR, in which the Democratic Bloc, where the leading role belonged to the representatives of the SED, won.

Building socialism

In July 1950, the Third Congress of the SED approved a five-year plan for economic development. During the years of the five-year plan, 79 were restored and 100 new enterprises were built, among them shipyards in Rostock, Wismar, Stralsund and Warnemünde, and two large metallurgical plants. Such gigantic construction was reminiscent of the USSR in the late 1920s and early 1930s. However, it soon became clear that the GDR had no funds to continue such construction. It was necessary to cut appropriations for social purposes. In the country, food was distributed by cards, wages were at a low level. The cooperative movement that had begun in the countryside finally ruined the national economy of the country.

Against the backdrop of economic successes (Federal Republic of Germany 1949-1990), the position of the GDR (German Democratic Republic 1949-1990) seemed catastrophic. Dissatisfaction with the existing regime began in the republic, which on June 16-17, 1953 grew into an open uprising against the existing system. Demonstrations took place all over the country, work was stopped. Shops were smashed and set on fire in cities. Weapons were used against the rebels. Three days later the uprising was crushed and order restored. These speeches were assessed as a "fascist coup" organized by "provocateurs" from the FRG.

Nevertheless, the leadership of the GDR was forced to make concessions: the production of consumer goods increased, prices fell slightly, and the USSR refused to continue collecting reparations. At the same time, a course was set for the accelerated development of the socialist foundations of the economy. During the 1950s, the "socialization" of industry was carried out, as a result of which it was nationalized, and private capital was liquidated. The complete collectivization of the countryside began. The year 1960 was called the "socialist spring in the countryside", when free farming was abolished and agricultural production cooperatives took its place. 84% of all agricultural land was already cultivated by cooperatives.

Development of the country's economy

As a result of the measures taken, it was possible to overcome the economic crisis and increase quantitative indicators. During the period from 1960 to 1983, gross industrial output increased 3.5 times. New branches of industry, which are of great importance for scientific and technological progress, developed at a particularly high rate. They accounted for approximately 40% of all manufactured goods. Complex automation was deployed in industry. It created its own industry of electronic computers. In terms of production volume, the GDR entered the top ten industrialized countries of the world and, according to this indicator, ranked fifth in Europe.

The rapid growth of industrial production was accompanied by an equally rapid growth of the public sector in the economy. Structural transformations in industry carried out in 1972 led to the fact that the state's share in gross industrial production increased from 83 to 99%. As a result, the entire industry began to work for the shaft, that is, for quantitative indicators. Most of the enterprises were unprofitable, and losses were covered by other enterprises. The rapid growth of industrial production was mainly due to heavy industry (here, in 23 years, production increased 4 times), while the production of consumer goods increased only 2.5 times.

At the same time, agriculture developed at an extremely slow pace.

German unification

In May 1971, Erich Honecker was elected first secretary of the SED. He managed to improve the economic situation of the country and raise the living standards of the population. But this did not affect the further development of the country. The people demanded Democratization. Throughout the country there were demonstrations demanding democratic reforms, truly free general elections. Mass exodus of the population from the country began. For 10 years, from 1970 to 1980, the population of the GDR decreased by almost a million people: they all fled to the FRG.

Honecker Erich (1912-1995) - Chairman of the State Council of the GDR (1976-1989), General Secretary of the Central Committee of the SED (1976-1989). In October 1989, he was removed from all posts, and in December he was expelled from the SED.

The leadership of the GDR established a "draconian" regime on the border, closing the country from the outside world with barbed wire. The order was given to shoot at all refugees, regardless of sex and age. Border posts were strengthened. But this did not help prevent a mass exodus from the GDR.

On October 7, 1989, when the leadership of the GDR was about to solemnly celebrate the 40th anniversary of the first socialist state in the history of Germany, mass rallies and demonstrations swept through the country, demanding the resignation of E. Honecker, the unification of Germany and the elimination of the power of the SED.

On October 7-9, 1989, tens of thousands of people took to the streets in Berlin, Dresden, Leipzig and other cities demanding fundamental changes in the country. As a result of the dispersal of the demonstration by the police, 3,000 people were arrested. However, this did not stop the movement against the existing system. On November 4, 1989, more than 500 thousand people took to the streets of Berlin.

Elections held on a multi-party basis on March 18, 1990 led to the victory of the CDU party. She received 41% of the vote, the Social Democrats 21%, and the SED only 16%. A new coalition government was created, consisting of representatives of the CDU and the Social Democrats. The government immediately raised the question of German unification. Negotiations began between the FRG and the USSR on a solution to the German problem, and on September 12, 1990, Chancellor G. Kohl and USSR President M. Gorbachev signed the Treaty on the Final Settlement with respect to Germany. At the same time, the issue of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Germany before the end of 1994 was also resolved. On October 3, 1990, Germany became united.

Consequences of the unification of the country

The consequences of such a rapid unification were severe for both parts of Germany. Throughout the former GDR, deindustrialization took place, reminiscent of a general collapse of industry. The entire economic system of the GDR turned out to be unprofitable and uncompetitive. Even after the measures taken by the German government to support the industry of the eastern territories, its products did not find a market for the West German market, not to mention the world market. At the same time, all the markets of East Germany were absorbed by West German industrialists, who thus received new opportunities for their development.

For the FRG, the most serious problem was the restoration of East German industry on a solid market basis. The state is compelled to give annually 150 billion marks in subsidies to raise it. Another problem was unemployment, about 13% of the working population of eastern Germany are unemployed, not counting those who work part-time or whose place is artificially subsidized by special state programs.

Summary

1945 - East Berlin - in the Soviet zone of occupation, West Berlin - under the control of Western states
July 1945 - formation of the KKE, SPD, CDU and LDPG parties; April 1946 - KPD and SPD merge to form the SED
the property of the German monopolies was nationalized and transferred to state ownership
October 7, 1949 - Proclamation of the GDR. President - V. Peak
50s - economic difficulties, transition to a rationing system, reduction in social spending
60s - the nationalization of all industry, complete collectivization in the countryside. The economic crisis has been overcome
70s - in terms of production, the GDR is among the top ten industrialized countries and ranks fifth in Europe
May 1971 - Erich Honecker at the head of the country. Attempts to improve the economic situation. Democratization demonstrations
exodus in Germany
October 7, 1989 - mass rallies: demand for the unification of Germany and the elimination of the power of the SED
March 18, 1990 - multi-party elections
October 3, 1990 - German unification. Solving the problems of restoring the industry of the GDR

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GDR in the 1950s and 1990s. Updated: December 6, 2016 By: admin

Education of the GDR. After capitulation in World War II, Germany was divided into 4 occupation zones: Soviet, American, British and French. Berlin, the capital of Germany, was divided in the same way. In the three western zones and the American-British-French West Berlin (it is surrounded on all sides by the territory of the Soviet zone of occupation), life was gradually established on the basis of democratic principles. In the Soviet zone of occupation, including East Berlin, a course was immediately taken to form a totalitarian communist system of power.

Between the former allies in the anti-Hitler coalition began " cold war”, and this most tragically affected the fate of Germany and its people.

Blockade of West Berlin. I.V. Stalin used the introduction of a single German mark in circulation in the three western zones (monetary reform on June 20, 1948) as a pretext for the Blockade of West Berlin in order to annex it to the Soviet zone of occupation. On the night of June 23-24, 1948, all land communications between the Western zones and West Berlin were blocked. The supply of the city with electricity and food products from the Soviet zone of occupation was cut off. August 3, 1948 I.V. Stalin directly demanded the inclusion of West Berlin in the Soviet zone, but was rebuffed by the former allies. The blockade lasted for almost a year, until May 12, 1949. However, blackmail did not achieve its goals. The supply of West Berlin was provided by an air bridge organized by the Western Allies. Moreover, the flight altitude of their aircraft was beyond the reach of Soviet air defense systems.

Creation of NATO and the split of Germany. In response to the open hostility of the Soviet leadership, the blockade of West Berlin, the communist coup in Czechoslovakia in February 1948 and the buildup of the Soviet military presence in Eastern Europe in April 1949, Western countries created the NATO military-political bloc (“North Atlantic Treaty Organization”). The creation of NATO influenced Soviet policy towards Germany. In the same year, it split into two states. The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) was created on the territory of the American, British and French zones of occupation, and the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was created on the territory of the Soviet zone of occupation. At the same time, Berlin was also split into two parts. East Berlin became the capital of the GDR. West Berlin became separate administrative unit, having received their own self-government under the tutelage of the occupying powers.

Sovietization of the GDR and the growing crisis. In the early 1950s in the GDR, socialist transformations began, which exactly copied the Soviet experience. Nationalization of private property, industrialization and collectivization were carried out. All these transformations were accompanied by mass repressions, with the help of which the Socialist Unity Party of Germany strengthened its dominance in the country and society. A rigid totalitarian regime was established in the country, a command-administrative system for managing all spheres of public life. In 1953, the Sovietization policy of the GDR was still in full swing. However, at that time, economic chaos and a decline in production, a serious decline in the standard of living of the population, began to clearly manifest itself. All this caused a protest of the population, and serious dissatisfaction with the regime on the part of ordinary citizens was growing. The most serious form of protest was the exodus of the population of the GDR to the FRG. However, since the border between the GDR and the FRG was already closed, the only way left was to go to West Berlin (it was still possible) and from there to move to the FRG.

Forecasts of Western experts. From the spring of 1953, the socio-economic crisis began to develop into a political one. The Eastern Bureau of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, located in West Berlin, based on its observations, noted the wide scope of the population's dissatisfaction with the existing system, the growing readiness of East Germans to openly oppose the regime.

Unlike the German Social Democrats, the CIA, which monitored the situation in the GDR, made more cautious forecasts. They boiled down to the fact that the SED regime and the Soviet occupation authorities controlled the economic situation, and that the "will to resist" among the East German population was low. It is unlikely that “East Germans will be willing or able to make a revolution, even if called for it, unless such a call is accompanied by a declaration of war by the West or a firm promise of Western military assistance.”

The position of the Soviet leadership. The Soviet leadership also could not fail to see the aggravation of the socio-economic and political situation in the GDR, but they interpreted it in a very peculiar way. On May 9, 1953, at a meeting of the Presidium of the Central Committee of the CPSU, an analytical report prepared by the Soviet Ministry of Internal Affairs (headed by L.P. Beria) on the flight of the population from the GDR was considered. It admitted that the hype raised on this issue "in the press of the Anglo-American bloc" had good reasons. However, the main reasons for this phenomenon in the certificate are reduced to the fact that “West German industrial concerns are actively working to poach engineering and technical workers”, and the leadership of the SED was too carried away by the tasks of “improving their material well-being”, without paying due attention at the same time to the nutrition and uniforms of the people's police officers. Most importantly, "the Central Committee of the SED and the responsible state bodies of the GDR are not conducting a sufficiently active struggle against the demoralizing work carried out by the West German authorities." The conclusion was clear: to strengthen the punitive organs and the indoctrination of the population of the GDR - although both of them already exceeded all reasonable limits, just becoming one of the causes of mass discontent. That is, the document did not contain any condemnation of the domestic policy of the leadership of the GDR.

Molotov's note. The note, which was prepared by V.M. on May 8, had a different character. Molotov and sent it to G.M. Malenkov and N.S. Khrushchev. The document contained a sharp criticism of the thesis about the GDR as a state of the "dictatorship of the proletariat", which was made on May 5 by the first secretary of the SED Central Committee W. Ulbricht, it was emphasized that he did not coordinate this speech with the Soviet side and that it contradicts the recommendations given to him earlier. This note was considered at a meeting of the Presidium of the Central Committee of the CPSU on May 14. The resolution condemned the statements of Walter Ulbricht and instructed the Soviet representatives in Berlin to talk with the leaders of the SED on the subject of stopping the campaign to create new agricultural cooperatives. If we compare the documents addressed to the Presidium of the Central Committee L.P. Beria and V.M. Molotov, one can, perhaps, come to the conclusion that the latter reacted to the situation in the GDR more quickly, sharply and meaningfully.

Order of the Council of Ministers. On June 2, 1953, Decree No. 7576 of the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On measures to improve the political situation in the GDR" was issued. It contained a condemnation of the course of the East German leadership towards "accelerated construction" or "forcing the construction" of socialism in East Germany. On the same day, a SED delegation headed by W. Ulbricht and O. Grotewohl arrived in Moscow. During the negotiations, the leaders of the GDR were told that the situation in their country was in a dangerous state, that they should immediately abandon the accelerated construction of socialism and pursue a more moderate policy. As an example of such a policy, the Soviet NEP, carried out in the 1920s, was cited. In response, W. Ulbricht tried to justify his activities. He stated that the fears of the "Soviet comrades" were exaggerated, but under their pressure he was forced to promise that the course of building socialism would become more moderate.

Actions of the leadership of the GDR. On June 9, 1953, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the SED adopted a decision on the "new course", which corresponded to the "recommendations" of the USSR Council of Ministers, and published it two days later. It cannot be said that the leaders of the GDR were particularly hasty, but they did not consider it necessary to explain to either the rank-and-file party members or the leaders of their organizations the essence of the new program. As a result, the entire party and state apparatus of the GDR was paralyzed.

During the talks in Moscow, the Soviet leaders pointed out to the leaders of East Germany that it was necessary to carefully investigate the reasons for the transfer of workers from the GDR to West Germany, not excluding workers from private enterprises. They proposed to take measures to improve the situation of workers, their living conditions, to combat unemployment, violations of labor protection and safety regulations, especially in overpopulated industrial areas and on the Baltic coast. All these instructions remained empty.

As early as May 28, 1953, by order of the GDR authorities, a general increase in production standards at industrial enterprises was announced. In fact, this meant a sharp decrease in real wages. Thus, it turned out that the workers of the GDR turned out to be the only category of the population that did not gain anything from the “new course”, but only felt the deterioration of living conditions.

Provocation. Some foreign and Russian historians believe that such a strange feature of the "new course" proves a deliberate sabotage by the leadership of the GDR of Soviet recommendations. The course towards the rejection of "barracks socialism" in the GDR, towards rapprochement with the FRG, towards compromise and German unity threatened Walter Ulbricht and his entourage with the loss of power and withdrawal from political life. Therefore, they were apparently even ready to take the risk of far-reaching destabilization of the regime in order to compromise the New Deal and save their monopoly on power. The calculation was cynical and simple: provoke mass discontent, riots, then they will intervene Soviet troops, and certainly will not be up to liberal experiments. In this sense, it can be said that the events of June 17, 1953 in the GDR were the result not only of the activities of “Western agents” (its role, of course, cannot be denied), but also of a deliberate provocation on the part of the then leadership of the GDR. As it turned out later, the scope of the popular movement went far beyond the planned anti-liberal blackmail and frightened the provocateurs themselves quite a bit.

Creation of the German Democratic Republic

In the Soviet occupation zone, the creation of the German Democratic Republic was legitimized by the institutions of the People's Congresses. The 1st German People's Congress met in December 1947 and was attended by the SED, the LDPD, a number of public organizations and the KPD from the western zones (the CDU refused to take part in the congress). The delegates came from all over Germany, but 80% of them represented residents of the Soviet zone of occupation. The 2nd Congress was convened in March 1948 and was attended by delegates from East Germany only. It elected the German People's Council, whose task was to develop a constitution for a new democratic Germany. The council adopted a constitution in March 1949, and in May of the same year, elections were held for delegates to the 3rd German People's Congress, which were held according to the model that became the norm in the Soviet bloc: voters could only vote for a single list of candidates, the vast majority of which were members of the SED . The 2nd German People's Council was elected at the congress. Although the SED delegates did not form a majority on this council, the party secured its dominant position through party leadership of delegates from social organizations (youth movement, trade unions, women's organization, cultural league).

On October 7, 1949, the German People's Council proclaimed the creation German Democratic Republic. Wilhelm Pick became the first president of the GDR, and Otto Grotewohl became the head of the Provisional Government. Five months before the adoption of the constitution and the proclamation of the GDR, the Federal Republic of Germany was proclaimed in West Germany. Since the official creation of the GDR took place after the creation of the FRG, East German leaders had a reason to blame the West for the split of Germany.

Economic difficulties and discontent of workers in the GDR

Throughout its existence, the GDR experienced constant economic difficulties. Some of them were the result of the scarcity of natural resources and poor development of economic infrastructure, but most were the result of the policies pursued by the Soviet Union and the East German authorities. On the territory of the GDR there were no deposits of such important minerals as coal and iron ore. There was also a lack of high-class managers and engineers who fled to the West.

In 1952, the SED proclaimed that socialism would be built in the GDR. Following the Stalinist model, the leaders of the GDR imposed a rigid economic system with central planning and state control. Heavy industry was subject to predominant development. Ignoring the dissatisfaction of citizens caused by the shortage of consumer goods, the authorities tried by all means to force workers to increase labor productivity.

After Stalin's death, the situation of the workers did not improve, and they responded with an uprising on June 16-17, 1953. The uprising began as a strike of construction workers in East Berlin. The unrest immediately spread to other industries in the capital, and then to the entire GDR. The strikers demanded not only the improvement of their economic situation, but also the holding of free elections. The authorities were panic-stricken. The paramilitary "People's Police" lost control of the situation, and the Soviet military administration brought in tanks.

After the events of June 1953, the government switched to a policy of carrots and sticks. Softer economic policy("New Deal") provided for a reduction in output standards for workers and an increase in the production of certain consumer goods. At the same time, large-scale repressions were carried out against the instigators of unrest and disloyal functionaries of the SED. About 20 demonstrators were executed, many were thrown into prison, almost a third of party officials were either removed from their posts or transferred to other jobs with official motivation "for losing contact with the people." Nevertheless, the regime managed to overcome the crisis. Two years later, the USSR officially recognized the sovereignty of the GDR, and in 1956 East Germany formed the armed forces and became a full member of the Warsaw Pact.

Another shock for the countries of the Soviet bloc was the 20th Congress of the CPSU (1956), at which the Chairman of the Council of Ministers N.S. Khrushchev exposed the Stalinist repressions. The revelations of the leader of the USSR caused unrest in Poland and Hungary, but in the GDR the situation remained calm. The improvement in the economic situation caused by the new course, as well as the opportunity for disgruntled citizens to "vote with their feet", i.e. emigrate across the open border in Berlin helped prevent a repeat of the events of 1953.

Some softening of Soviet policy after the 20th Congress of the CPSU encouraged those members of the SED who did not agree with the position of Walter Ulbricht, a key political figure in the country, and other hardliners. The reformers, led by Wolfgang Harich, a lecturer at the University. Humboldt in East Berlin, advocated democratic elections, workers' control of production, and the "socialist unification" of Germany. Ulbricht also managed to overcome this opposition of the "revisionist deviationists". Harich was sent to prison, where he stayed from 1957 to 1964.

Berlin Wall

Having defeated the supporters of reforms in their ranks, the leadership of East Germany embarked on an accelerated nationalization. In 1959, the mass collectivization of agriculture and the nationalization of numerous small enterprises began. In 1958, about 52% of the land belonged to the private sector, by 1960 it had been increased to 8%.

Demonstrating support for the GDR, Khrushchev took a tough stance against Berlin. He demanded de facto recognition from the Western powers of the GDR, threatening to block access to West Berlin. (Until the 1970s, the Western powers refused to recognize the GDR as an independent state, insisting that Germany should be unified in accordance with post-war agreements.) Once again, the scale of the exodus of the population from the GDR that had begun was terrifying for the government. In 1961, more than 207,000 citizens left the GDR (in total, more than 3 million people moved to the west since 1945). In August 1961, the East German government blocked the flow of refugees by ordering the construction of a concrete wall and barbed wire fences between East and West Berlin. Within a few months, the border between the GDR and West Germany was equipped.

Stability and prosperity of the GDR

The exodus of the population stopped, the specialists remained in the country. There was an opportunity to carry out more effective state planning. As a result, in the 1960s and 1970s, the country managed to achieve a level of modest prosperity. The rise in living standards was not accompanied by political liberalization or weakening of dependence on the USSR. The SED continued to tightly control the fields of art and intellectual activity. East German intellectuals experienced much greater limitations in their work than their Hungarian or Polish counterparts. The well-known cultural prestige of the nation rested mainly on left-wing writers of the older generation, such as Bertolt Brecht (together with his wife, Helena Weigel, who directed the famous Berliner Ensemble theater group), Anna Segers, Arnold Zweig, Willy Bredel and Ludwig Renn . But there are also some new significant names, among them - Christa Wolf and Stefan Geim.

East German historians should also be noted, such as Horst Drexler and other researchers of the German colonial policy of 1880-1918, in whose works a reassessment of individual events in recent German history was carried out. But the GDR was most successful in raising its international prestige in the field of sports. An extensive system of state-run sports clubs and training camps has produced high-profile athletes who have achieved astonishing success in the Summer and Winter Olympics since 1972.

Changes in the leadership of the GDR

By the end of the 1960s, the Soviet Union, still firmly in control of East Germany, began to show dissatisfaction with the policies of Walter Ulbricht. The leader of the SED actively opposed the new policy of the West German government led by Willy Brandt aimed at improving relations between West Germany and the Soviet bloc. Dissatisfied with Ulbricht's attempts to sabotage Brandt's eastern policy, the Soviet leadership forced his resignation from party posts. Ulbricht retained the minor post of head of state until his death in 1973.

Ulbricht's successor as first secretary of the SED was Erich Honecker. A native of the Saarland, he entered the communist party, and after his release from prison at the end of World War II, he became a professional SED functionary. For many years he headed the youth organization Free German Youth. Honecker set out to consolidate what he called "real socialism". Under Honecker, the GDR began to play a certain role in international politics, especially in relations with the countries of the Third World. After the signing of the Basic Treaty with West Germany (1972), the GDR was recognized by most countries of the world community and in 1973, like the FRG, became a member of the UN.

The collapse of the GDR

Although there were no more mass uprisings until the late 1980s, the East German population never fully adapted to the SED regime. In 1985, about 400,000 citizens of the GDR applied for a permanent exit visa. Many intellectuals and church leaders openly criticized the regime for its lack of political and cultural freedoms. The government responded by increasing censorship and expelling some prominent dissidents from the country. Ordinary citizens expressed outrage at the system of total surveillance carried out by an army of informers who were in the service of the Stasi secret police. By the 1980s, the Stasi had become a kind of corrupt state within a state, controlling its own industrial enterprises and even speculating in the international foreign exchange market.

The coming to power in the USSR of M.S. Gorbachev and his policy of perestroika and glasnost undermined the basis of existence ruling regime SED. East German leaders recognized the potential danger early on and abandoned restructuring in East Germany. But the SED could not hide from the citizens of the GDR information about changes in other countries of the Soviet bloc. West German television broadcasts, which were watched much more frequently by the inhabitants of the GDR than East German television productions, provided extensive coverage of the course of reforms in Eastern Europe.

The dissatisfaction of most East German citizens with their government culminated in 1989. While neighboring Eastern European states were rapidly liberalizing their regimes, the SED welcomed the brutal crackdown on a Chinese student demonstration in June 1989 in Tiananmen Square. But it was no longer possible to contain the wave of impending changes in the GDR. In August, Hungary opened its border with Austria, allowing thousands of East German vacationers to emigrate to the west.

At the end of 1989, popular discontent resulted in colossal protest demonstrations in the GDR itself. "Monday Demonstrations" quickly became a tradition; hundreds of thousands of people took to the streets of large cities of the GDR (the most massive demonstrations took place in Leipzig) demanding political liberalization. The leadership of the GDR was divided on the question of how to deal with the disaffected, in addition, it became clear that it was now left to its own devices. In early October, M.S. arrived in East Germany to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the GDR. Gorbachev, who made it clear that the Soviet Union would no longer interfere in the affairs of the GDR to save the ruling regime.

Honecker, who had just recovered from a serious operation, advocated the use of force against the protesters. But most members of the SED Politburo did not agree with his opinion, and in mid-October Honecker and his main allies were forced to resign. Egon Krenz became the new general secretary of the SED, as did Honecker, the former leader of the youth organization. The government was headed by Hans Modrow, secretary of the Dresden district committee of the SED, who was known as a supporter of economic and political reforms.

The new leadership attempted to stabilize the situation by meeting some of the demonstrators' most common demands: the right to leave the country freely (the Berlin Wall was opened on November 9, 1989) and free elections were proclaimed. These steps were not enough, and Krenz, after serving as head of the party for 46 days, resigned. At a hastily convened congress in January 1990, the SED was renamed the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS), and a truly democratic party charter was adopted. Gregor Gysi, a lawyer by profession who defended several East German dissidents during the Honecker era, became chairman of the renewed party.

In March 1990, the citizens of the GDR participated in the first free elections in 58 years. Their results greatly disappointed those who hoped for the preservation of a liberalized but still independent and socialist GDR. Although several newly emerging parties advocated a "third way" other than Soviet communism and West German capitalism, a bloc of parties allied with the West German Christian Democratic Union (CDU) won a landslide victory. This electoral bloc demanded unification with West Germany.

Lothar de Maizière, leader of the East German CDU, became the first (and last) freely elected Prime Minister of the GDR. The short period of his reign was marked by great changes. Under the leadership of de Maizière, the former control apparatus was quickly dismantled. In August 1990, five lands were restored that were abolished in the GDR in 1952 (Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia). On October 3, 1990, the GDR ceased to exist, united with the Federal Republic of Germany.

The former Nazi Germany was divided into several. Austria left the empire. Alsace and Lorraine returned to French rule. Czechoslovakia got back the Sudetenland. Statehood was restored in Luxembourg.

Part of the territory of Poland, annexed by the Germans in 1939, returned to its composition. The eastern part of Prussia was divided between the USSR and Poland.

The rest of Germany was divided by the Allies into four zones of occupation, which were controlled by Soviet, British, American and military authorities. The countries that took part in the occupation of German lands agreed to pursue a coordinated policy, the main principles of which were the denazification and demilitarization of the former German Empire.

Education Germany

A few years later, in 1949, on the territory of the American, British and French zones of occupation, the FRG was proclaimed - the Federal Republic of Germany, which became Bonn. Western politicians thus planned to create in this part of Germany a state built on a capitalist model, which could become a springboard for a possible war with the communist regime.

The Americans did a lot for the new bourgeois German state. Thanks to this support, Germany quickly began to turn into an economically developed power. In the 1950s, there was even talk of the "German economic miracle."

The country needed cheap labor, the main source of which was Turkey.

How did the German Democratic Republic come into being?

The response to the creation of the FRG was the proclamation of the constitution of another German republic - the GDR. This happened in October 1949, five months after the formation of the Federal Republic of Germany. In this way, the Soviet state decided to resist the aggressive intentions of the former allies and create a kind of stronghold of socialism in Western Europe.

The constitution of the German Democratic Republic proclaimed democratic freedoms to its citizens. This document also consolidated the leading role of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany. For a long time, the Soviet Union provided political and economic assistance to the government of the GDR.

However, in terms of industrial growth rates, the GDR, which embarked on the socialist path of development, lagged significantly behind its western neighbor. But this did not prevent East Germany from becoming a developed industrial country, where agriculture also developed intensively. After a series of turbulent democratic transformations in the GDR, the unity of the German nation was restored; on October 3, 1990, the FRG and the GDR became a single state.