System of indicators of socio-economic statistics. Theoretical foundations of the country's economic development Questions for self-study

The concept of national economy

Definition 1

The national economy is the entire national economy of a particular country, i.e. a set of regions and industries that are united into a single organism through multilateral economic ties.

An inseparable complex of the national economy is the production, exchange, distribution and consumption of goods, services and spiritual values.

The following features are characteristic of the national economy as an integral organism:

• Single economic space with its own legislation, monetary unit, financial and monetary system;
• Close economic ties between economic entities with a common reproductive circuit;
• Territorial certainty with an economic center playing a coordinating and regulatory role.

Each economic entity in the national economy pursues its own interests. These interests are consistent with the general economic law, according to which each individual, having his own interest, contributes at the same time to the achievement of the greatest benefits for all.

The main goal of economic policy is to create a competitive and efficient economy. Mechanisms and methods for achieving this goal include a set of tools that allows you to create favorable conditions for the economic activity of economic entities, regardless of their form of ownership.

The desire of the national economy for efficiency, stability and justice is ensured through:

• Stable growth of national production volume;
• Stable price level;
• Maintaining balance in external balance;
• High and stable employment rate.

Stable growth of national production means a steady growth of production in the country without abrupt changes, crises and recessions. As a result of economic growth, social, political and national contradictions are smoothed out.

stable price level. It should be borne in mind that prices that do not change over a long period of time slow down the growth of GNP, and employment in the country decreases. Low prices attract consumers, but deprive the producer of any incentives, while high prices, on the contrary, create incentives for production and underestimate purchasing activity. Achieving a stable level of prices in the modern economy does not mean "freezing" them, but a planned change.

Maintaining balance in the external balance means a relative balance of exports and imports, a stable exchange rate.

A high and stable level of employment is achieved when everyone can get a job. However, this does not mean that the entire working-age population in the country is involved in full employment. There is always a certain number of people who are temporarily out of work.

These goals are achieved through the following macroeconomic regulation tools:

• fiscal policy;
• monetary policy;
• Revenue regulation policies;
• Foreign economic policy.

Remark 1

The overall and final result of the functioning of the national economy is an increase in national wealth.

Types of indicators of the national economy

Indicators of the national economy are data characterizing the economic activity of subjects and features of the processes of all time periods.

Definition 2

Economic indicators are effective tools that are actively used in science, allowing you to adjust and manage economic processes.

All economic indicators can be divided into the following groups:

By scale of assessment:

• World economic indicators that characterize the global problems of the world level;
• State economic indicators. Their task is to determine the essence of the development of any country;
• Economic indicators for a group of countries that describe any associations, for example, EU countries;
• Industry economic indicators reflecting the state of a particular area of ​​activity;
• Local economic indicators that characterize a particular enterprise or groups of various organizations.

Within the meaning of

• Relative in numerical terms, the task of which is to display the deviation of two parameters, for example, income and loss, which are presented in absolute terms;
• Relative indicators in percentage terms;
• Absolute, a feature of which is the exact numerical expression of the volume of assets.

By type economic indicators are divided into:

• Simple, i.e. this is the resulting value, which is obtained after the settlement operations;
• Aggregated, which have a complex structure, and their calculation is carried out using complex formulas.

When comparing simple and aggregate indicators, it is better to give preference to the latter, since they have a more understandable economic meaning.

List of key indicators

Each economy of a particular country has its own macroeconomic parameters, i.e. indicators of the national economy. These include:

• Gross national product, equal to the total value of all products created by national enterprises on the territory of the state and beyond;
• Gross domestic product equal to the value of all goods and services produced only in the territory of their state;
• Net national product, which is the most accurate indicator that characterizes the domestic economic situation;
• National income equal to the real income of the population for a specific time period;
• Personal income equal to the sum of all income of the population after payment of all taxes, payment of insurance, etc.;
• National wealth, which is a complex of all public goods that subjects have at a given moment in time.

E economic indicator- shows, characterizes the state of the economy, its objects, processes occurring in it in the past, present and future. Economic indicators are one of the most common and effective tools for describing the economy used in economic science and in the management of economic processes.

In its most general form, an economic indicator includes a name, a numerical value, and a unit of measure.

The composition and structure of economic indicators represent one of the most important objects of study of economic science and, at the same time, its content element.

System of economic indicators- a set of interrelated, systematized indicators that characterize the economy as a whole, its industry, region, sphere of economic activity, a group of homogeneous economic processes.

EP grouping

The structure of economic indicators is highly branched, the indicators are divided into groups according to a number of characteristics.

In accordance with the division of economic science into macroeconomics and microeconomics, it is customary to single out generalized macroeconomic indicators, characterizing the economy as a whole and its large parts, spheres, and microeconomic indicators, related mainly to the economy of companies, corporations, enterprises, firms.

In the structure of economic indicators, there are absolute, also called quantitative, voluminous, and relative, also called quality. Absolute, volumetric indicators (in economics, in contrast to physics voluminous any indicators characterizing the quantity of goods, products, money) are expressed in natural or monetary units, such as pieces, weight, length, volume, rubles, dollars. Relative indicators represent the ratio of two indicators of the same or different dimensions. In the first case, these are dimensionless indicators characterizing usually rate of change economic magnitude or ratio, proportions of homogeneous economic values ​​obtained as a result of their comparison, measured in share terms or as a percentage. In the second case, these are dimensional indicators that characterize the rate of change of a value over time, the efficiency of the use of resources, the sensitivity of the value in relation to the factor that caused its change. For example, the efficiency index of an automobile engine can be measured by the mass of gasoline consumed per one kilometer of travel, and the return on investment index can be measured by the amount of output per one ruble of capital investment.

In the aggregate of relative economic indicators that characterize the dynamics of economic processes, changes in volume indicators, there are indicators of growth (growth rate) and growth (incremental).

Growth rates(growth rates) represent the ratio of the amount of economic product produced or consumed in a given period to the amount produced or consumed in the previous period. Most often, an annual, quarterly, monthly period or simply fixed end and start dates are considered. If during the studied period of time the volume of the product has not changed, then the growth rate (growth rate) is equal to one or 100%; if the volume has increased, then the growth rate exceeds 100%, and if it has decreased, then it is below 100%.

Growth indicators characterize the change in the state of the economy, and therefore it is legitimate to call them also indicators of the state or change in the economy. A group of such relative indicators often used in statistics is formed by index indicators or simply indexes. The index represents the ratio of the indicator at a given moment of interest to us to its basic value, fixed at the corresponding time taken as the basis. Indices characterize the relative value of the indicator in comparison with the starting, basic one and thus show how the value of the indicator has changed over a certain period of time (from the basic to the current one). Indices of prices, incomes, living standards are widespread.

growth rates, or growth rates, represent the ratio of the increment (increase or decrease) in the amount of produced, sold, consumed product in a given period to the amount of produced, sold, consumed product in the previous, base period. If during the studied period of time, say, over the last year, the volume of production has not changed, then the growth rate for this year is zero; if the volume has increased, then the growth rate is positive; if it has decreased, then the growth rate is negative. Incremental indicators, by analogy with growth indicators, are measured in shares or in percentage terms. Based on physical analogies, growth rates can be called indicators of "economic acceleration".

Economic indicators are divided into a number of groups depending on how they are defined how their numerical values ​​are found and for what purposes, for what tasks indicators are used.

Values calculated, calculated and analytical indicators are established through calculations based on mathematical dependencies, economic and mathematical models using certain methods. Calculation and analytical indicators are widely used as initial in determining forecast and planned indicators, as well as indicators of socio-economic programs.

The values ​​of reporting, reporting and statistical, statistical indicators are established on the basis of the financial statements of enterprises, organizations, the collection and processing of statistical information, sample surveys, and observations.

Regulatory it is customary to call indicators that are usually established by management bodies or established in business practice and expressing resource spending rates(raw materials, energy, materials, labor, money) for the production of a unit of output, the performance of work, consumption (consumption rates). Indicators in the form of norms and standards (universal norms) also reflect accepted, given ratios, proportions, such as, for example, the rate of accumulation, savings, profit, wages, taxation.

In economics, they also find application scientific and technical indicators, characterizing the achievements of science, engineering, technology.

Depending on the areas, sectors of the economy, the type of economic processes characterized by certain economic indicators, it is customary to distinguish such groups, types as indicators of needs, resource provision, production, distribution, exchange, consumption, costs, efficiency, reserves, sustainability, reliability , risk, prices, demand, supply, income, expenses, standard of living, and many others;

From single, individual, homogeneous indicators related to primary cells, links, the smallest elements of the economy, are formed group, summary, aggregated indicators characterizing economic objects and processes on a larger scale, covering the whole region (regional indicators), industry (industry indicators), the economy of the country as a whole (national economic, general economic indicators), world economy (global indicators).

Along with summary, generalized indicators and even as them, the economy widely uses medium indicators in the form of an average value of an extensive set of quantities. It is important to know that the average economic indicator is not necessarily the arithmetic mean of a group of homogeneous indicators, as people who are unfamiliar with economics, as well as with economic and mathematical statistics, sometimes believe. are considered more representative weighted average indicators. If, for example, "n" people receive annual income A, "m" people - income B and "p" people - income C, then the average income D is calculated not as 1/3 (A + B + C), but by the formula :

D = (nA + mB + pC) / (n + m + p)

which gives much more representative results.

The composition of economic indicators is constantly supplemented and updated, and methods for their determination are also being improved. The most widely used economic indicators are in analysis, forecasting, planning, and management. The success of managing the economy, economic objects and processes essentially depends on the range of indicators used, the degree of completeness with which they characterize the managed objects and processes, on how accurately and correctly these indicators are defined and worked out by economic science.

The system of formation of economic indicators as a basis for analysis

Similar indicators can be calculated by .

Return of labor costs= Volume of production / Cost of living labor

Labor intensity= Cost of living labor / Volume of production

There is, in addition, a number of indicators expressing . The most important of these indicators is average annual output per worker.

In the process of economic analysis, indicators are also used that express movement, availability and condition of certain types of production resources. There are indicators that efficiency of investments made, mainly capital investment. The main of these indicators are payback period of capital investments, as well as profit per one ruble of capital investments.

What is the degree of progressiveness of this enterprise? The following indicators answer this question: level of mechanization expressing the share of mechanized production processes in the total volume of the latter; level of automation characterizing the share of automated production processes in their total volume.

Finally, there are generalizing economic indicators that characterize the given enterprise itself. First, let's name the cost of the organization, otherwise - the cost of the property complex of the organization. Another indicator is the market value of the enterprise, which is the value of the shares of this enterprise, corresponding to market conditions.

A comprehensive assessment of the enterprise's activities is reflected in the construction of the so-called multiplier. It is an integral, complex indicator, which is based on private indicators that reflect the activities of the enterprise. Distinguish two types of multipliers: standard and subjective. The former can be used in evaluating the activities of any organization, and the latter - only one specific organization. An example of a standard multiplier is the assessment of the probability of bankruptcy of an organization based on the Altman method. This method is based on determining the sum of five financial ratios. Each of them has a certain weight. The economic literature describes in detail the essence of this method and how it is applied.

Subjective multipliers make it possible to study those indicators that are not covered by standard multipliers.

The system of formation of economic indicators considered in this article thus serves as the basis for carrying out.

Indicators of the level of economic development of the country:

1. GDP/GNP per capita.

This is the leading indicator in the analysis of the level of economic development. It is the basis of international classifications that divide countries into developed and developing countries. In some developing countries (for example, in Saudi Arabia), the per capita GDP indicator is at a high level, corresponding to developed industrial countries, however, according to the totality of other indicators (sectoral structure of the economy, production of basic types of products per capita, etc.), such countries cannot be classified as developed.

2. Sectoral structure of the national economy.

Its analysis is carried out on the basis of GDP calculated by industry. First of all, the ratio between the large national economic sectors of material and non-material production is taken into account. In developed countries, the service sector dominates, accounting for more than 60% of GDP. In developing countries, the largest share is occupied by agriculture and the mining industry. In transition economies, the share of the service sector is growing and the share of industry and agriculture is declining.

The study of the structure of individual industries is also important. Thus, a sectoral analysis of the manufacturing industry shows what proportion it is occupied by mechanical engineering and chemistry, i.e. industries providing scientific and technological progress. The diversification of leading industries is great. For example, the number of machine-building industries and industries in the industrialized countries of the world reaches 150-200 or more, and only 10-15 in countries with a relatively low level of economic development.

3. Production of main types of products per capita (the level of development of individual industries).

The indicators of production of some basic types of products, which are basic for the development of the national economy, are considered; they make it possible to judge the possibilities of meeting the needs of the country in these basic types of products.

Electricity production per capita.

Steel smelting and production of rolled products, machine tools, automobiles, mineral fertilizers, chemical fibers, paper and a number of other goods.

Production in the country per capita of the main types of food products: grain, milk, meat, sugar, potatoes, etc.

Production per capita of non-food products: fabrics, clothing, footwear, knitwear, etc.

4. The level and quality of life of the population.

The standard of living of the population of the country is largely characterized by the following indicators:

Structure of GDP by use.

Particularly important is the analysis of the structure of private final consumption (personal consumer spending). A large share in the consumption of durable goods and services indicates a higher standard of living of the population and, consequently, a higher overall level of economic development of the country.

The state of the labor force: average life expectancy, the level of education of the population, per capita consumption of basic food products, the level of qualification of the labor force, the share of expenditures on education in GDP, etc.

Consumption of basic foodstuffs per capita is also one of the most important indicators characterizing the standard of living of the population.

Development of the service sector: population per 1 doctor; population per 1 hospital bed; providing the population with housing, household appliances, etc.

Combined indexes.

Combined indices make it possible to present the level of quality of life as a general indicator. For the purposes of international comparisons, the so-called Human Development Index (HDI), or the Human Development Index (HDI) for short, is used. The human development index contains four problems and is measured by three indicators.

A diverse combination of production factors and development conditions in different countries does not allow assessing the level of economic development from any one point of view. To do this, use a number of key indicators.

Indicators of the level of economic development of the country:

1. GDP/GNP per capita.

This is the leading indicator in the analysis of the level of economic development. It is the basis of international classifications that divide countries into developed and developing countries. In some developing countries (for example, in Saudi Arabia), the per capita GDP indicator is at a high level, corresponding to developed industrial countries, however, according to the totality of other indicators (sectoral structure of the economy, production of basic types of products per capita, etc.), such countries cannot be classified as developed.

In the group of developed countries, this figure averages $25,000, for developing countries and countries with economies in transition it was $1,250 (including Russia - $4,000).

2. Sectoral structure of the national economy.

Its analysis is carried out on the basis of GDP calculated by industry. First of all, the ratio between the large national economic sectors of material and non-material production is taken into account. In developed countries, the service sector dominates, accounting for more than 60% of GDP. In developing countries, the largest share is occupied by agriculture and the mining industry. In transition economies, the share of the service sector is growing and the share of industry and agriculture is declining.

The study of the structure of individual industries is also important. Thus, a sectoral analysis of the manufacturing industry shows what proportion it is occupied by mechanical engineering and chemistry, i.e. industries providing scientific and technological progress. The diversification of leading industries is great. For example, the number of machine-building industries and industries in the industrialized countries of the world reaches 150-200 or more, and only 10-15 in countries with a relatively low level of economic development.

3. Production of main types of products per capita (the level of development of individual industries).

The indicators of production of some basic types of products, which are basic for the development of the national economy, are considered; they make it possible to judge the possibilities of meeting the needs of the country in these basic types of products.

Electricity production per capita.

The electric power industry underlies the development of all types of industries, and, therefore, this indicator hides the possibilities of technical progress, the achieved level of production, the quality of goods, the level of services, etc. The ratio of this indicator between developed countries and least developed countries is currently 500:1, and sometimes more.

Steel smelting and production of rolled products, machine tools, automobiles, mineral fertilizers, chemical fibers, paper and a number of other goods.

Steel production in Russia is 408 kg per capita (in the USA - 366 kg; in Japan - 839 kg; in Germany - 566 kg; in Poland - 272 kg), the production of chemical fibers - 1.1 kg (in the USA - 17, 1 kg; in Japan - 14.3 kg; in Germany - 13 kg; Poland - 2.5 kg), the production of cars per 1000 people is 7.1 units. (in the USA - 20.7 units; in Japan - 65.9 units; in Germany - 66.7 units; in Poland - 13.8 units). In terms of steel and iron smelting, Russia ranks 4th in the world, in the production of cars - 11th, paper and cardboard - 14th.

Production in the country per capita of the main types of food products: grain, milk, meat, sugar, potatoes, etc.

Comparison of this indicator, for example, with the rational norms for the consumption of these food products, developed by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization - FAO or national institutions, makes it possible to judge the degree of satisfaction of the population's needs for food of their own production, the quality of the diet, etc.

Grain production per capita in Russia is 590 kg (in the USA - 1254 kg; in Japan - 102 kg; in Germany - 559 kg; Poland - 586 kg), potatoes - 242 kg (in the USA - 163 kg; in Japan - 23 kg; in Germany - 161 kg; Poland - 627 kg), meat - 31 kg (in the USA - 113 kg; in Japan - 24 kg; in Germany - 74 kg; Poland - 77 kg). In terms of grain production, Russia ranks 5th in the world, meat - 8, potatoes - 2.

Production per capita of non-food products: fabrics, clothing, footwear, knitwear, etc.

The production of shoes per capita in our country is 0.3 pairs (in the USA - 0.4 pairs; in Japan - 0.3 pairs; in Germany - 0.4 pairs; in Poland - 1.3 pairs), production of woolen fabrics - 0.4 m 2, cotton - 14.5 m 2 (in the USA - 0.2 and 13.5 m 2; in Japan - 1.6 and 6.1 m 2; in Germany - 1.0 and 5, 8 m 2; in Poland - 0.8 and 5.1 m 2).

Production in the country per 1000 people or per average family of a number of durable goods: (refrigerators, washing machines, televisions, cars, video equipment, personal computers, etc.).

Russia is significantly inferior in these indicators to developed countries. For example, in terms of the number of televisions per 100 households (1.7 times behind the United States, and 1.2 times behind Germany). In Russia, there are 126 TVs per 100 families (in the USA - 240, Japan - 222, Germany - 140, Poland - 133), 113 refrigerators (in the USA - 124, Japan - 127, Germany - 130, Poland - 124), 27 cars cars (in the USA - 85, Japan - 130, Germany - 97, Poland - 33).

4. The level and quality of life of the population.

The standard of living of the population of the country is largely characterized by the following indicators:

Structure of GDP by use.

Particularly important is the analysis of the structure of private final consumption (personal consumer spending). A large share in the consumption of durable goods and services indicates a higher standard of living of the population and, consequently, a higher overall level of economic development of the country. An estimated 60% of Russians spend more than 50% of their income on food. For comparison, the population of Japan spends an average of 15.5% on food, Germany - 12.4%, Sweden - 11.8%, USA - 8.7%.

The state of the labor force: average life expectancy, the level of education of the population, per capita consumption of basic food products, the level of qualification of the labor force, the share of expenditures on education in GDP, etc.

The life expectancy of Russians reached its lowest value in 1994 - 64 years, in 1997 it increased to 66.9 years, in 2001 it decreased to 65 years. In third world countries this indicator is 62 years, in developed countries it is 75 years. The life expectancy of men in Russia is 12 years lower than the life expectancy of women. According to the UN, there is no such big difference in any of the developed countries (in Japan it is 6 years, in the USA and Spain - 7, in Great Britain, Sweden, Greece - only 5 years).

The adult literacy rate in Russia is 99.6% and is the highest in the world; 95% of the population has a secondary education. For comparison: this figure in Germany - the country with the highest level of education in the EU - 78%, in the UK - 76%, in Spain - 30%, in Portugal - less than 20%. The general indicator of the level of culture in the world community is considered to be the average number of years of education of the population. In North America and Western Europe, this figure exceeds 11-12 years, i.e. about 1/3 higher than in Russia.

Consumption of basic foodstuffs per capita is also one of the most important indicators characterizing the standard of living of the population. For example, the consumption of meat and meat products in Russia is 43 kg per year per capita (USA - 120 kg, Japan - 44 kg, Germany - 88 kg, Poland - 61 kg); fish and fish products - 11 kg (USA - 11 kg, Japan - 58 kg, Germany - 14 kg, Poland - 10 kg); fruits and berries - 37 kg (USA - 106 kg, Japan - 60 kg, Germany - 79 kg, Poland - 119 kg); potatoes - 122 kg (USA - 59 kg, Japan - 102 kg, Germany - 73 kg, Poland - 132 kg).

Development of the service sector: population per 1 doctor; population per 1 hospital bed; providing the population with housing, household appliances, etc.

In Russia, there are 212 people per doctor. (in the USA - 382 people, Japan - 530 people, Germany - 286 people, Poland - 442 people); for 1 hospital bed - 87 people. (in the USA - 278 people, Japan - 68 people, Germany - 120 people, Poland - 195 people).

Combined indexes.

Combined indices make it possible to present the level of quality of life as a general indicator. For the purposes of international comparisons, the so-called Human Development Index (HDI), or the Human Development Index (HDI) for short, is used. The human development index contains four problems and is measured by three indicators.

Among the main indicators that determine the human development index, life expectancy, the level of education, and the real gross national product per capita are singled out. The index value ranges from 0 to 1. It is considered that countries with HDI below 0.5 have a low level of human development, if the indicator fluctuates between 0.5 and 0.8 - an average level, if it exceeds 0.8 - a high level.

The Human Development Report published by UNDP in 2002 provides human development indices in 173 countries of the world, calculated for 2000. Norway occupies the leading position (HDI is 0.942), the second place in the ranking belongs to Sweden (0.941), the third to Canada (0.940); in sixth place is the United States (0.939). Sierra Lyon has the lowest HDI (0.275). Russia, according to UNDP data, was in 2000 in the group of countries with an average HDI and ranked 60th in the list (0.781). According to this indicator, our country is ahead of Panama (0.787), Belarus (0.788), Mexico (0.796), Uruguay (0.831)

5. Indicators of economic efficiency.

This group of indicators to the greatest extent characterizes the level of economic development, as it shows - directly or indirectly - the quality, condition and level of use of the country's capital, labor resources.

The main indicators of economic efficiency are:

Labor productivity (in general, for industry and agriculture, for individual sectors and types of production).

Labor productivity shows the output (GDP) of one worker and is calculated as the ratio of the total product (GDP) and the number of employees. Hourly labor productivity in Russia is 4 times lower than in Italy, 3.8 times in France, 3.6 times in the USA, 2.8 times in Japan and Germany.

The capital intensity of a unit of GDP or a particular type of product.

Capital intensity shows how much capital resources are spent on 1 den. units final product and is calculated as the ratio of the amount of capital expended to the total product (GDP).

Return on assets of a unit of fixed assets.

Return on assets shows how many rubles of production received from 1 den. units fixed assets and is calculated as the ratio of the value of goods produced per year (GDP) to the value of fixed production assets.

Material consumption per unit of GDP or specific types of products.

Material consumption shows how much raw materials and materials are spent on 1 den. units final product and is calculated as the ratio of the cost of raw materials and materials to the total product (GDP).

It should be emphasized that the level of economic development of the country is a historical concept. Each stage of development of the national economy and the entire world community as a whole introduces certain changes in the composition of its main indicators. Despite all attempts to formulate an aggregate indicator of the effectiveness of the functioning of the national economy, which would also reflect the level of economic development of the country, such an indicator has not been created due to the numerous difficulties in bringing together cost and natural values, the costs of skilled and unskilled labor, etc.

To analyze the economic situation in the world, a number of indicators characterizing the dynamics and state of the world economy are used. The main one - the gross world product - expresses the total volume of final goods and services produced on the territory of all countries of the world, regardless of the nationality of the enterprises operating there in a certain period of time. Accounting for final products provides for the exclusion of repeated counting of raw materials, semi-finished products, other materials, fuel, electricity and services used in the process of its production.

The GMP indicator expresses the overall activity in the world and individual countries. On the other hand, its constituent parts cover the main areas, industries and factors of economic development. Thus, a review of the main constituent parts of the use of VMP gives an idea of ​​the main sectors of demand, and an analysis of VMP by production shows changes in both the structure of the entire economy and the main industries. GMP makes it possible to determine the place of the country and regions in world production, social labor productivity in different periods of time. But it cannot be used as an indicator of the potential of certain types of production, the level of technology or the well-being of the population.

In each individual country, the gross domestic product (GDP) is calculated. It is calculated on the basis of the system of national accounts, which is built on the concept of the productive nature of all activities. It is a set of internationally recognized rules for accounting for economic activity and reflects the main macroeconomic relations of the internal and external sectors of national economies.

The SNS is constantly being improved. In 1993, the UN approved a new standard SNA (the previous one was adopted in 1968). The SNA has been introduced into Ukrainian practice since 1988 (back in the USSR), which required a huge amount of work to recalculate the main macroeconomic indicators of the country's development and significantly changed the picture of the structure of the national economy, the dynamics and pace of its development.

The central indicator of the SNA is GDP, the second most important indicator is the gross national product (GNP). They reflect the results of activities in two areas of the national economy: material production and services, are defined as the value of the entire volume of final production of goods and services in the economy for 1 year (quarter, month). Calculated in current or constant prices.

The main difference is that GDP is calculated according to the so-called. territorial basis, GNP - on a national basis.

GDP is the total value of products of the sphere of material production and services, regardless of the nationality of enterprises located in the territory of a given country.

GNP is the total value of the entire volume of products and services in the national economy, regardless of the location of the national enterprises of this country.

GNP = GDP + net factor income

Net factor income is the difference between income from the use of factors of production located abroad that are owned by residents and payments to non-residents for the use of factors of production owned by them in a given country, i.e. the difference between the income and income of residents abroad and non-residents in the country. Typically, for developed countries, this difference is small and amounts to about 1% of GDP.

The calculation of GDP / GNP is carried out according to three principles: production, use and income.

GDP by production (by industry) is the sum of value added across all sectors of the national economy. Allows you to identify the ratio and role of individual industries in the creation of GDP. The dynamics over a number of years makes it possible to reveal the change in its structure, the dynamics of the development of individual sectors of the national economy and the nature of economic policy in the country. Value added or nominally net output of individual industries is the difference between the value of gross output and the sum of current production costs, i.e. the value added in the production process at one stage or another. It consists of the depreciation of fixed assets transferred to the product, wages, profits, taxes. The latter are taken into account when calculating at current prices.

GDP by use (by expenditure) is the sum of all expenditures for the purchase of the total volume of output produced in a given year. Includes the following articles:

final consumer spending (primary necessities, consumer durables…);

final expenses of state bodies. management (government spending on the purchase of enterprise products and the purchase of resources for the needs of the state, i.e. the amount of government spending on paying wages to civil servants and on purchasing goods and services);

gross capital investments, gross savings and changes in inventories;

balance of exports and imports (difference), i.e. part of GDP is exported and part is spent on imports of goods and services.

GDP by income is the amount of income received in the country from the production of products of a given year (the amount of income from economic resources used in the production of a social product for a certain time). Includes the following articles:

wages of employees;

profit of firms and corporations;

income of unincorporated enterprises that are individually owned and income of freelancers;

rent payments (income from property - land, real estate ...);

interest on loan capital (payments for capital used in the production of GDP);

depreciation deductions - deductions for the creation of a monetary fund that compensates for the depreciation of fixed assets involved in the creation of GDP;

indirect taxes - VAT, excises, customs duties…, i.e. unearned income that the state receives by increasing the prices for its content.

Government subsidies are deducted from GDP.

GDP/GNP calculated by income and expenditure should be equal.

The main requirement in calculating GDP/GNP is to avoid double counting, i.e. so that only final products are taken into account.

End products are goods and services that are purchased by consumers for final use. Intermediate products are goods and services that are further processed or resold several times before reaching the consumer.

Therefore, to avoid double counting, GDP/GNP should act as the value of final goods and services and include only the value added at each stage of processing.

Value added (VA) is the value created in the production process at a given enterprise and covers the real contribution of the enterprise to the creation of the value of a particular product, i.e. wages, profits and depreciation of a particular enterprise.

DS \u003d runway - TMI + AO,

where - WFP - gross product of the enterprise (market price of output);

TMI - current material costs;

AO - deductions for depreciation.

In the SNA, value added includes: depreciation, wages, corporate and unincorporated profits, rents received by them, interest on loan capital, and indirect taxes on business.

GDP overstates output by the value of annual depreciation charges and by the amount of indirect taxes, so it cannot reflect that production actually added to the welfare of society. For this, there are indicators - net national product (NNP) and national income (NI).

NNP measures the total annual output of goods and services that a country has produced and consumed in all sectors of its national economy.

NNP = GDP - JSC

National income is the value newly created during the year, which characterizes what added the production of this year to the welfare of society.

ND = NNP - the amount of indirect taxes + subsidies,

ND = GDP - AO - the amount of indirect taxes + subsidies.

The amount of taxes is significant. They are included in the market prices of goods and services and are paid by the final consumers. Subsidies have the opposite effect on prices: they lower them by their own amount. The indicator of national income roughly corresponds to the concept of national income produced. It should be noted that for any national economy, the incomes at its disposal are important. The amount of income at the disposal of a given country is calculated as the difference between the net domestic product and the balance of income of enterprises and citizens of this country abroad and the income of foreigners in this country. This figure roughly corresponds to the concept of used national income.

Gross national disposable income (GNI) is the GNP used for savings and consumption, including net transfers from abroad.

Net transfers are the difference between transfers of migrant workers who are considered residents to and from a given country.

In quantitative terms, the difference between GDP and produced national income is quite large and amounts to approximately 8-11%, equal to the amount of depreciation. In different countries, this difference may fluctuate, since the amount of depreciation depends on the national mass of fixed assets. The share of depreciation increases slightly during periods of recession and decreases during periods of recovery. The dynamics of the produced national income in the long term almost completely corresponds to the dynamics of GDP, therefore, the analysis mainly uses GDP and GMP indicators.

GDP and other indicators included in the system of national accounts and calculated by different methods are linked to each other, so their values ​​are identical. At the same time, it should be noted that national indicators are often revised within 10-30%.

Calculation of GDP and GMP

At the national levels, the volume of GDP is measured in current and constant prices of any given year. The difference between these measurements can be quite significant. Quantitative GDP, or GDP at current prices, is growing faster than real GDP, or GDP at constant prices. The difference in growth rates is due to price changes. When calculating at constant prices, there is an elimination (elimination) of value fluctuations. Real GDP growth is widely regarded as an indicator of economic development. High rates are often considered a sign of the strength of the economy.

GMP is calculated in a single currency - US dollars at current and constant rates, although these indicators cannot claim to be an accurate quantitative measurement in individual countries and regions. Numerous studies show that exchange rates are approaching the actual ratio of national prices for goods and services entering international trade channels. But even if the exchange rate is directly determined by the market, it only reflects the prices of internationally traded goods and services, since it is itself often determined by other types of international transactions, such as foreign investment and loans, transfers of income and funds, and other factors that can also cause short-term fluctuations. in exchange rates even when there is no real change in the economic environment. Significant short-term deviations in exchange rates from average and long-term ones, large fluctuations in the relative costs of goods and services reduce the usefulness of calculations in the single currency of world production, determining its level and distributing GMP across countries and regions. Changes in exchange rates lead to corresponding variations in the distribution and volume of GMP.

Comparison of gross product across countries based on a common currency, such as US dollars, may underestimate in dollar terms the volume of goods and services produced in countries with a low level of development due to the large scale of their non-commodity sector (barter transactions, household production, production of livelihoods, the informal sector, which are usually not accounted for and can all account for up to 40% of GDP in less developed countries). Since the degree of underestimation is not determined systematically, comparisons of GDP and GMP may not be comparable.

Research conducted by the UN Project on International Comparisons shows that in less developed countries, using current exchange rates can underestimate GDP by up to three times or more. This is due to the underestimation of the share of developing countries in world production. Accordingly, when current exchange rates are used, the calculation of GMP growth rates is affected, since developing countries are included in it with smaller shares.

One of the alternative options for calculating the GMP is based on the use of coefficients for comparing the purchasing power of currencies, determined by the ratio of the prices of a set (basket) of identical goods in each country. The average ratios applied to the GDP of each country are defined as the weighted average prices of the respective individual bundles of goods and services, using the weights of all these goods and services in GDP by expenditure. This approach provides an estimate of the GMP in "international dollars" rather than in ordinary dollars at the exchange rate.

The volumes of GDP calculated on the basis of these methods differ significantly from each other. The calculation based on purchasing power parity leads to underestimation of the leading industrialized countries by 20-40%. Purchasing power parity estimates significantly change the positions of the main subsystems in the world economy. The industrialized countries of the West account for 55% of the GMP (at current exchange rates - almost 75%), while the contribution of developing countries rises to 43% (at current exchange rates over 19%). According to this method of calculation, the assessment of the economic indicators of individual countries changes significantly. The United States remains in first place - 21% of the GMP (25.3% at the current exchange rate), China - 12% (4.4%), Japan - 8.4% (15.7%), Germany - 5.0% (5.6%), India - 4.1% (1.5%). They are followed by France, Italy, Britain, Canada, Brazil.

The use of different methods of calculation leads to noticeable differences in the rates of VMP. This is because Asian developing countries, which account for most of the GDP of developing countries, have higher growth rates than the rest of the world, and their share should be higher when calculated on the basis of purchasing power parity than when calculated on the basis of current rates. . The main reason for this is that there is a tendency for the prices of goods and services to be undervalued in less developed countries due to lower wages in them. Therefore, when there is a revaluation of these goods and services in general prices, their value increases, especially in small countries, by 9-13%.

Differences in GMP estimates show that there is no single indicator that could take into account different types of economic activity in different countries identically. The suitability of each scoring method depends on the purpose of the analysis. The use of current exchange rates in estimating the GMP provides useful data in determining international flows of goods and services, the movement of capital between countries, levels of external debt, and payments that are often made based on current exchange rates.

Conclusion: in UN statistics, when calculating GDP and GMP, exchange rates are used, cleared of price fluctuations. This method allows you to obtain indicators without taking into account relative fluctuations in exchange rates and prices and more accurately assess the contribution of each country to the world product in comparison with the current exchange rate. The method of calculating GDP based on the purchasing power of currencies is used by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).