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Dictionary of basic terms and concepts / Philosophy

The Absolute is the origin of everything that exists, which does not depend on anything else, itself contains everything that exists and creates it.

Abstraction is a process of thinking in which the multitude is abstracted from the individual, random, insignificant and singles out the general, necessary, essential in order to achieve scientific objective knowledge.

Autarky - (from the Greek autarkeia - self-satisfaction) - a state of independence from the outside world, incl. and from other people. The term was used by Plato and Aristotle; Cyrenaics and Stoics considered A., or “self-sufficiency”, the ideal of life.

Agnosticism is the doctrine of the unknowability of true being, that is, the transcendence of the divine; unknowability of truth and the objective world, its essence and patterns.

Axiology is a philosophy. a discipline that studies the category of “value”, the characteristics, structures and hierarchies of the value world, the ways of its cognition and its ontological status, as well as the nature and specifics of value judgments.

Accident - insignificant, changeable, accidental, which can be omitted without changing the essence of the thing.

Analysis and synthesis are two universal, oppositely directed operations of thinking. Analysis is a procedure of mental (sometimes real) division of the object under study into its constituent parts, sides, properties and their study. Synthesis is the union of the parts of objects, their sides or properties obtained as a result of A. into a single whole.

Analogy - the similarity of non-identical objects in some aspects, qualities, relationships.

Antinomy - (from the Greek. antinomia - a contradiction in the law) - a reasoning that proves that two statements, which are a negation of each other, follow one from the other.

Anthropocentrism - (from the Greek anthropos - man, kentron - center) - the position according to which man is the center and the highest goal of the universe.

Apathy - (from the Greek. apatheia - the absence of suffering, dispassion) - a term of stoicism, denoting the ability of a sage, guided by the stoic moral ideal, not to experience joy from what causes pleasure in ordinary people, and not to suffer from what frightens an ordinary person.

Apperception is conscious perception. The term was introduced by G.V. Leibniz to denote the grasping by the mind of its own internal states; apperception was opposed to perception, understood as an internal state of mind, aimed at representing external things. For I. Kant, apperception meant the original unity of the consciousness of the cognizing subject, which determines the unity of his experience.

A priori and a posteriori - (lat. a priori - from the previous, a posteriori - from the next) - the terms of philosophy and logic. A priori - the independence of knowledge, ideas from experience.

Archetype - prototype, primary form, pattern.

Ataraxia - in the philosophy of Epicurus and his school - a state of peace of mind, equanimity, to which a person, especially a sage, should strive.

Attribute - a sign, a sign, an essential property.

The unconscious is a set of mental states and processes that are carried out without the participation of consciousness.

Time - traditionally (in philosophy, theology) time is considered as a transient and final form of being of things and in this sense it is opposed to eternity.

Hedonism is an ethical direction that considers sensual joy, pleasure, pleasure as a motive, goal or proof of all moral behavior.

Hylozoism is a philosophical direction that considers all matter from the very beginning as living. Spirit and matter do not exist without each other. The whole world is the universe, there are no boundaries between the inanimate and the psychic, since this is the product of a single pra-matter.

Gnoseology is the study of knowledge.

Humanism is a system of worldview, the basis of which is the protection of the dignity and self-worth of the individual, his freedom and the right to happiness. The origins of modern gypsy go back to the Renaissance (15th-16th centuries), when in Italy, and then in Germany, Holland, France, and England, a broad and diverse movement arose against the spiritual despotism of the church, which entangled human life with a system of rigid regulation, against its ascetic and cynical morality.

Deduction and induction - deduction is a form of thinking based on the derivation of the particular from the general. Induction is a form of thinking based on the movement of knowledge from the separate, special to the universal, regular.

Deism is a form of faith based on the recognition that God is the root cause of the world, but after his creation, the movement of the universe takes place without the participation of God.

Determinism is the doctrine of the initial determinability of all processes occurring in the world, including all processes of human life.

Dialectics is a philosophy. a theory that affirms the internal inconsistency of everything that exists and is conceivable and considers this inconsistency to be the main or even the only source of any movement and development.

Dogma is a philosophical thesis, the truth of which is the basis of a particular philosophical system.

Dualism is the coexistence of 2 different, irreducible to unity principles, principles, images.

Idea - (from the Greek idea - image, representation) - a polysemantic concept used in philosophy in significantly different senses. In philosophy before Plato, I. is a form, type, nature, image or method, class or type. In Plato I. - a timeless essence, a dynamic and creative archetype of the existing; I. form a hierarchy and organic unity, being models both for everything that exists, and for objects of human desire. The Stoics I. have general concepts of the human mind. In Neoplatonism, I. are interpreted as archetypes of things that are in the cosmic Mind. In early Christianity and in scholasticism, I. are prototypes of things that eternally exist in the mind of God.

Immanent - internal inherent in an object, phenomenon or process.

Interpretation - interpretation, explanation; attribution of meanings (meanings) to the elements of the theory.

Quality is a system of the most important, necessary properties of objects - the external and internal certainty of a system of characteristic features of objects, losing which objects cease to be what they are.

Quantity is a set of such changes in a material system that are not identical to a change in its essence.

Mysticism is a practice, the purpose of which is to merge, unite with the absolute, substance.

Monism is a concept that characterizes such a worldview that explains the existence of everything that exists in the world, as a result of modifications of substance - the origin, the root cause, the single basis of everything that exists.

Thinking is the highest level of knowledge and ideal development of the world in the form of theories, ideas, human goals. Relying on the sensual sphere, he overcomes their limitations and penetrates into the sphere of the essential connections of the world, its laws.

Observation is a cognitive activity associated with a deliberate purposeful perception of objects and phenomena of the external world.

Nihilism is the denial of the ideals and values ​​of the spiritual order, the denial of culture.

Society is a set of objective social relations that exist in certain historical forms and develop in the process of joint practical activities of people.

Ontology is the doctrine of being as such, independent of its particular varieties.

Pantheism is a philosophical doctrine according to which God is an indifferent principle that is not outside nature, but is identical with it.

A paradigm is a set of theoretical and methodological prerequisites that determine a specific scientific research, which is embodied in scientific practice at this stage.

A concept is a form of thinking that singles out objects from a certain subject area (universe) and collects (generalizes) objects into a class by pointing to their common and distinctive feature.

Practice is a purposeful, object-sensory activity of a person to transform material systems.

Relativism is a philosophical doctrine deployed in the principle “everything is relative” (negation of the absolute, norms).

Reflection is the principle of scientific and philosophical thinking, the turning of thinking on itself.

Self-consciousness is a person's knowledge and evaluation of himself as a thinking, feeling and active subject; an integral part of consciousness.

Sensationalism is a direction in understanding the origin and essence of knowledge, the reliability of which is determined by the sphere of feelings.

Syncretism - Phil. a category that characterizes a special type of connection of heterogeneous factors in integrity, when a multitude of elements does not lose its originality in unity, and unity does not allow elements to go into a state of chaos.

A system is a set of elements ordered in a certain way, interconnected and forming some integral unity.

Solipsism - Phil. term, denotes the point of view, according to which one reality of my consciousness is undoubted.

Structure - a set of stable relationships and connections between the elements of the system.

Substance is the fundamental principle; that which does not depend on another and gives rise to another, the root cause of being.

Subject and object – the subject is the source of cognitive activity. An object is something to which the cognitive activity of the subject is directed.

Theodicy is the “justification of God”, the desire to remove the contradiction between the omnipotence and the ultimate justice of God.

Theory is the highest stage of scientific knowledge, which gives a comprehensive reflection of the subject in its integrity and development; a form of organization and ordering of ideas about any sphere of reality.

Transcendent is a concept denoting that which goes beyond our sensory experience, empirical knowledge.

Transcendental - (from lat. transcendent, transcen-dentalis - stepping over, going beyond) - a fundamental philosophy that arose in medieval philosophy. and a theological term that has undergone significant changes in meaning over its history. The transcendental was essentially rethought by I. Kant. In his critical philosophy, T. is associated with the a priori and is opposed to the empirical and the transcendent. Kant calls theory “any kind of cognition that concerns itself not so much with objects as with the types of our cognition of objects, insofar as this cognition must be possible a priori.

Utilitarianism is a life orientation and ethical doctrine, according to which individual benefit is recognized as the highest value, serving as a measure of human virtue.

Utopia is an image of an ideal social order.

Fatalism is a worldview that considers every event and every human act as an inevitable realization of predestination, fate.

Eclecticism is an unsystematic, devoid of a single basis, a combination of heterogeneous positions, ideas, concepts.

Empiricism is a direction in the theory of knowledge, which considers sensory experience the main source of knowledge.

Eschatology is the doctrine of the final destinies of the world and man, of the Last Judgment.

Autotrophy - in the philosophy of Russian cosmism - the ability of living organisms to maintain their existence without eating other organisms - by transforming dead matter into living matter; ability now inherent in plants, which in the future people must acquire

Agnosticism is the philosophical idea of ​​the complete or partial unknowability of the world

Anarchism is a philosophical idea about the unconditional value of a person's personal freedom and the need to overcome all forms of its limitation.

Anthropology - branch of philosophy devoted to the study of man

Anthropomorphism - the transfer of human features to objects of the outside world

Anthropocentrism is a philosophical idea according to which man should be the main subject of study as the central link in the universe (cf. theocentrism)

Aporia - a paradox, a hopeless situation of thought, a mental impasse

A priori - independent of sensory experience

Asceticism - a philosophical theory and practice of limiting desires (usually material) in order to achieve spiritual enlightenment (comprehension of the truth)

Ataraxia - spiritual equanimity in the teachings of ancient skeptics

Atheism is the denial of the existence of God

Atman - the individual soul in Indian philosophy

God-manhood - in Russian religious philosophy - the idea of ​​perfect humanity as the ultimate goal of the historical development of society

Brahman - the soul of the universe in Indian philosophy or the pantheistic principle

Verification - empirical verification of judgments for their truth

Virtual - possible, which, under certain conditions, can turn into real

Voluntarism is the idea according to which a person himself forms his life path (cf. fatalism), as well as the idea that the world and human activity are based not on reason, but on will

Unity - the philosophical principle of the unity of any set, when each element of this set is part of the whole, but at the same time does not merge with it completely, retaining its independence

Hedonism - the idea that one should seek pleasure and avoid pain

Heliocentrism - the idea of ​​​​the structure of the universe, according to which its center is the Sun, and other celestial bodies move around it

Geocentrism - the idea of ​​​​the structure of the universe, according to which its center is the motionless Earth, and other celestial bodies move around it

Hylozoism is a philosophical idea according to which all objects of animate and inanimate nature are animated

Gnoseology - a branch of philosophy devoted to the study of problems of knowledge

Tao - the natural way of things in ancient Chinese philosophy

Deduction - a method of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from a general rule for a particular case (cf. induction)

Deism - the idea of ​​​​God, according to which he created the world, endowed it with laws and eliminated himself

Dialectics - a philosophical doctrine of the universal interconnection and eternal change of things

Dualism - the simultaneous presence of two, as a rule, opposite qualities or properties in something

Idealism is a philosophical idea, according to which some kind of incorporeal (supersensible) principle really and eternally exists, which generates (creates) the material world (cf. materialism)

Ideal - not perceived by the senses and not having physical qualities (cf. material)

The ideal Absolute is the incorporeal (supersensible) origin of the world (God, the World Mind, the Soul of the Universe, etc.)

Isostenia - the equivalence of opposing judgments in the teachings of ancient skeptics

Induction - a method of reasoning in which, by generalizing several special cases, one general rule is derived (cf. deduction)

Intuition - the ability to directly comprehend the truth without evidence and justification

Irrationalism is a philosophical position according to which reality cannot be comprehended by rational methods.

Historiosophy - philosophical understanding of history

Karma - in Indian philosophy - the fate of any living being, a destiny determined by the totality of previous lives

Conceptualism is one of the solutions to the medieval controversy about Universals, according to which the latter exist after things as concepts of the mind (the same as moderate nominalism)

Cosmos - translated from Greek - the general order of the universe - the Universe, understood as something harmonious, beautiful, ordered

Cosmopolitanism is an idea that denies national and state borders in the name of the unity of the human race, considering a person as a “citizen of the Universe”

Libido - in the teachings of Z. Freud - unconscious sexual desire

Logic is the science of the forms and laws of correct thinking

Logos - in the teachings of Heraclitus, the Stoics and Christians - the World Law, the divine principle that governs the world

Mayeutics is the philosophical method of Socrates, helping a person through contradictions, doubts and reasoning to find the universal truth.

Materialism is a philosophical concept, according to which the physical (material) world really and eternally exists, and all spiritual phenomena are the result of the activity of human consciousness, which represents the highest stage in the evolution of the physical world (cf. idealism)

Material - perceived by the senses and having physical qualities (cf. ideal)

Matter - the totality of everything physical, sensual (material)

Metaphysics - the doctrine of the supernatural, supersensible (or about the higher world, which is outside our physical world, or about the universal laws of the latter)

Methodology - a philosophical doctrine of the methods of cognition and activity, as well as the very combination of these methods

Mysticism is a direction in the spiritual life of the Middle Ages, which does not allow the possibility of comprehending religious dogmas, their justification by means of reason, calling only for reckless faith in them, and also, more broadly, a direction in spiritual life that practices irrational, intuitively direct comprehension of the divine and merging with it

Monotheism - monotheism, a religious belief that there is only one God

Naturalism is a philosophical idea that recognizes nature as the primary reality and the main object of knowledge, and also seeks to explain everything only by natural (natural) causes.

Nirvana - in Indian philosophy - the cessation of earthly births, reunion with Brahman

Nominalism is one of the solutions to the medieval controversy about Universals, according to which the latter exist after things, only as their names (names)

The noosphere - in the philosophy of Russian cosmism - is a fundamentally new stage of world evolution, when the human mind becomes the decisive force for further development, purposefully transforming and improving the Universe

Noumenon - in Kant's philosophy - a “thing in itself”, something that objectively exists, but is not given to a person either in experience or before him and therefore is unknowable

Object - external world in relation to a person (cf. subject)

Objective - existing in itself, that is - outside of a person and independently of him (cf. subjective)

Ontology - a branch of philosophy devoted to the study (comprehension) of Being

Alienation - in the teachings of Hegel, Feuerbach and Marx - the process of separation of any creation or product from its creator, in which the creation becomes independent of its creator and hostile to him

Pantheism - the idea of ​​God, according to which he is identical to the universe

Patristics - the philosophical activity of the "fathers" of the church - the founders of the Christian worldview

Positivism is a philosophical direction of the second half of the 19th-20th centuries, according to which philosophy should move away from metaphysical issues and become the methodology of science

Polytheism - polytheism, a religious belief in which there are many gods (paganism)

Psychoanalysis - Z. Freud's doctrine of the human psyche, as well as the theory and practice of treating mental illness created by him, one of the directions in psychology

Psychology is a science that studies the diverse world of the human psyche

Rationalism is a philosophical position according to which the world is arranged rationally and therefore can be fully known by rational means, as well as the idea of ​​the priority of the latter over sensory experience in the matter of knowledge

Realism is one of the solutions to the medieval controversy about Universals, according to which the latter exist before things, in a special supersensible world, and are their causes.

Relativism is a philosophical position according to which everything in the world is relative and therefore nothing can be definitely and definitively spoken about.

Samsara - in Indian philosophy - the wheel of rebirth of the individual soul

Secularization is the ideological and actual delimitation of the secular and the spiritual, the ideological separation of God from man, religion from philosophy

Sensationalism is a philosophical idea according to which the sense organs provide us with more accurate information about the world around us than the mind.

Syllogism - deductive reasoning

Skepticism - philosophical doubt about the reliability of any provisions

Sobornost - in the philosophy of the Slavophiles - the principle of combining personal and general, voluntary union of people for joint activities

Solipsism is a philosophical idea according to which each person can consider himself the only existing reality, and everything else - his feelings.

Sophism - outwardly correct proof of deliberately false statements with the help of a deliberate violation of logical laws

Socialism is a doctrine and socio-political movement advocating the construction of a society without private property, based on the principles of justice and solidarity of people

Sophiology - in Russian religious philosophy - the doctrine of Divine Wisdom - the main principle by which the universe is arranged

Sublimation - in the teachings of Z. Freud - the transformation of sexual energy into various non-sexual activities

Subject - a person who knows the world external to him (cf. object)

Subjectivism is a philosophical idea according to which a person sees the world only on the scale of his own perception.

Subjective - existing in the spiritual, inner world of a person and depending on him (cf. objective)

Scholasticism is a medieval philosophy aimed at the rational reinforcement of religious dogmas

Tautology - a statement in which two parts simultaneously follow from each other (imply each other)

Theism is a religious belief that God is the Creator of the world and constantly controls it.

Theodicy - justification of God - the religious and philosophical problem of explaining the evil existing in the world

Theocentrism is a religious and philosophical idea, according to which the main subject of comprehension should be God as the cause and purpose of everything that exists, the central link of the universe (cf. anthropocentrism)

Universals - in medieval philosophy - general concepts

Utilitarianism is the idea that philosophy should deal not with abstract issues, but with the problems of real human life and bring concrete benefits (see positivism and pragmatism)

Utopia is a socio-philosophical doctrine that draws a model of an ideal social structure (or any ideal project in general)

Fatalism - the idea of ​​the predestination of everything that exists, including any human life (cf. voluntarism)

Phenomenon - a phenomenon - what a person perceives the world in his sensory experience

Eudemonism - the idea that the main task of philosophy should be the search for individual human happiness

Evolution is a process of change, development

Heuristics is a philosophical method in which, instead of assimilating ready-made answers, a person, through reflection, must find the truth himself.

Existentialism is a direction in the philosophy of the twentieth century, which considers the main subject of study (comprehension) not the objective world, but individual human existence.

Existence - individual existence

Empiricism is the philosophical idea that sensory experience should be the main source of knowledge.

Years of life of prominent philosophers

(in chronological order)

Buddha c.583 - c.483 BC

Confucius 551-479 BC

Laozi VI-V centuries. BC.

Thales c.625-547 BC

Anaximander c.610 - c.540 BC

Anaximenes c.588 - c.525 BC

Pythagoras c.580 - c.500 BC

Xenophanes VI-V centuries. BC.

Heraclitus c.544 - c.483 BC

Parmenides c.540 - c.470 BC

Zeno of Elea c.490 - 430 BC

Gorgias c.483 - c.375 BC

Protagoras c.480 - c.410 BC

Socrates c.469 - 399 BC

Democritus c.460 - c.370 BC

Antisthenes c.435 - c.370 BC

Plato 428/27 - 348/47 BC

Diogenes c.400 - c.325 BC

Aristotle 384 - 322 BC

Epicurus 341 - 270 BC

Pyrrho c.360 - c.270 BC

Zeno the Stoic c.336 - c.264 BC

Clement c.150 - c.215

Tertullian c.160 - c.222

Origen c.185 - c.254

Sextus Empiricus II-III centuries AD

Augustine 354 - 430

John Roscelin c.1050 - c.1120

1. ABSOLUTE(from Lat absolutus - unconditional, unlimited) the concept of idealistic philosophy, denoting the spiritual principle of all things, which is thought of as something one, universal, beginningless and infinite and is opposed to any relative and conditioned being.
2. ABSOLUTE IDEA - the main category of Hegel's philosophy, denoting the universe in its entirety, unconditional, concrete and personal universality (ie, substance and subject at the same time).
3. ABSOLUTE SPIRIT- in the philosophical system of Hegel, the final link in the development of the spirit, realizing self-consciousness absolute idea
4. AXIOLOGY - the doctrine of values, the philosophical theory of universally valid principles that determine the direction of human activity, the motivation of human actions.
5. ANTINOMY(Greek contradiction of the law to itself) - 1) a combination of mutually contradictory statements about the subject, allowing equally convincing rationale; 2) an irremovable contradiction, conceivable in an idea or law when trying to formulate them conclusively.
6. ANTHROPOLOGISM- a philosophical concept, whose representatives see the main worldview category in the concept of "man" and argue that only on the basis of it can a system of ideas about nature, society, and thinking be developed.
7. APORIAS(Greek a - negation sign, poros - road, bridge) - a hopeless situation, the impossibility of reaching a solution to the problem, because the subject itself or the concepts used contain contradictions.
8. A POSTERIORI(from lat. a posteriori- from the following) - knowledge gained from experience.
9. A PRIORI- (from lat. a priori- from the previous) - knowledge that precedes experience and does not depend on it.
10. ARHAT - the concept of ancient Indian philosophy, means "defeating the enemy." An arhat was a person who reached nirvana, overcame his passion, which violated the calm flow of consciousness.
11. ARCHETYPE- prototype, original image, idea. In analytical psychology, along with instincts, archetypes are innate mental structures located in the depths of the "collective unconscious", and form the basis of universal human symbolism.
12. ATMAN - the concept of Indian philosophy, has several meanings: “I”, “myself”, “body”. The main meaning of the concept of atman is “man” as an individual and universal cosmic psychic being. Atman in this sense is the genetic and substantial beginning of existence, its foundation and end.
13. UNCONSCIOUS - in a broad sense - a set of mental processes, operations and states that are not represented in the mind of the subject. This is a special sphere of the mental, qualitatively different from the phenomena of consciousness. The unconscious characterizes individual and group behavior, the real goals and consequences of which are not recognized. Freud introduced unconscious in the form of a powerful force, antagonistic activity of consciousness.
14. BEING- a philosophical concept denoting the objective world that exists independently of consciousness. In a broad sense, being is the most general and abstract concept denoting the existence of anything at all.
15. VERIFICATION- a methodological concept denoting the process of establishing the truth of scientific statements as a result of their empirical verification.
16. "THING IN ITSELF"- according to Kant, a thing that exists for itself, regardless of the cognizing subject.
17. POWER- a form of social relations characterized by the ability to influence the nature and direction of the activities and behavior of people and social groups through economic, ideological and organizational-legal mechanisms, as well as with the help of authority, tradition, violence. The essence of power is the relationship of leadership and subordination.
18. WILL- conscious purposefulness of a person to perform certain actions.
19. VOLUNTARISM(from Latin voluntas - will, the term was introduced by F. Tönnies in 1883) - an idealistic direction of philosophy, considering the will as the highest principle of being. Bringing will to the fore in spiritual being, voluntarism opposes intellectualism (or rationalism) - philosophical systems that consider the intellect, reason, to be the basis of all things.
20. PERCEPTION- a sensual image of the external structural characteristics of objects and processes of the material world, directly affecting the senses.
21. TIME- an attribute, a universal form of the existence of matter, expressing the duration of existence and the sequence of changes in the states of all material systems and processes in the world.
22. GENESIS(Greek genesis - origin, formation) - origin, emergence and development, which will lead to a certain state, form, object and phenomenon.
23. HUMANISM(lat. humanitas - humanity) - an anthropological direction that recognizes a person as the most important value. The beginning of humanism in ancient Rome, but as an independent direction was formed and received a powerful development in the Renaissance.

24. DAO(Chinese) - the right path, cosmic and moral law. The main category of Chinese philosophy, includes all other categories. Tao is understood as the highest principle of a self-developing universe, the origin of all things, the genetic unity of the world: everything is born from it and everything returns to it.

1. TRAFFIC- the most important attribute, a way of existence of matter. Movement includes all processes occurring in nature and society. In its most general form, movement is a change in general, any interaction of material objects and a change in their states.
2. DECONSTRUCTION- a special strategy in relation to the text, which includes both “destruction” and its reconstruction. The term reflects the rethinking of the European tradition as a tradition of metaphysics, where the main point is not destruction, but positive meaning-building.
3. DEMYTHOLOGIZATION- a term for methodological techniques that are used by religious philosophers and theologians when translating the mythological plots of sacred texts into the language of modernity.
4. DESTRUCTION- clarification of the foundations of philosophical ontological constructions. Destruction, on the one hand, reveals the possibilities discovered by the ancient tradition and subsequently obscured, and on the other hand, it orients to an independent, ultimate understanding of being. In the historical and philosophical context, destruction is understood as one of the possibilities of actual human existence, which finds its own meaning in its specific time.
5. DEFINITION- a brief logical definition that establishes the essential distinguishing features of the subject or the meaning of the concept - its content and boundaries.
6. DHAMMA(in Pali) or DHARMA ( in Sanskrit) ( dharma) - a concept that has multiple meanings. First of all, the Buddha's teaching, the quintessence of spiritual knowledge, combines such concepts as conscience, moral teaching, justice, obligation, nature, religious prescription, etc. It is also understood as an element of being. It is believed that the world process consists of interacting 72 elements-dharmas.
7. DIALECTICS- the science of the universal laws of development of nature, society, man and thinking.
8. DISCURSIVE- rational, mediated, logical, demonstrative, as opposed to sensual, direct, intuitive.
9. THE GAME- a form of free self-identification of a person, which implies a real openness to the world of the possible and unfolds either in the form of a competition, or in the form of a representation (performance, representation) of any situations, meanings, states.
10. PERFECT- a subjective image of objective reality that arises in the process of expedient human activity (subjective idealism). PERFECT- the objectively existing essence of all things (objective idealism).
11. IDEA- a philosophical term denoting “meaning”, “meaning”, “essence” and closely related to the categories of thinking and being.
12. IMMANENT- a property or regularity inherent in this or that object, phenomenon or process.
13. INTENTIALITY- in phenomenology - the primary sense-forming aspiration of consciousness to the world, the sense-forming attitude of consciousness to an object, the subject interpretation of sensations.
14. INTERPRETATION- in the sciences of the historical and humanitarian cycle - the interpretation of texts aimed at understanding their semantic content; in mathematical logic, logical semantics, philosophy of science - establishing the meanings of formal language expressions.
15. INTERSUBJECTIVITY- the structure of the subject, corresponding to the fact of the individual plurality of subjects and acting as the basis of their community and communication.
16. INTUITIONISM- philosophical and methodological setting, recognizing the last basis of being and cognition is direct, “live” penetration into the subject, which overcomes the division of reality into subject and object.
17. INTUITION- the process of direct acquisition of knowledge through a holistic grasp of the problem situation without its discursive derivation and evidence.
18. YIN AND YANG(Chinese) - Yin and Yang are seen as the forces of Heaven and Earth, which bring order to the chaos that reigns in the world. They are opposite to each other, but as a result of their harmony and unity, a person appears. Yin is understood as a feminine, rational principle, and Yang is understood as an unconscious, masculine principle of the world.
19. IRRATIONAL- lying beyond the reach of the mind, inaccessible to comprehension within the framework of logical thinking, opposite to rational.
20. IRRATIONALISM- the designation of currents in philosophy, which, in contrast to rationalism, limit or deny the possibilities of the mind in the process of cognition and make the basis of the worldview something inaccessible to the mind or alien to it, asserting the illogical and irrational nature of being itself.
21. TRUE- adequate reflection of the object by the cognizing subject, reproduction of it as it exists on its own, outside and independently of the person and his consciousness; the objective content of sensory, empirical experience, concepts, ideas, judgments, theories, teachings and a holistic picture of the world in the dialectics of its development.
22. HISTORICISM- a philosophical trend that brings to the fore the logical-methodological, epistemological and ideological problems of historical knowledge.
23. KALAM(from Arabic kalam - word) - the direction of medieval Muslim philosophy, which determined its goal to study, explain and protect the basic principles of the religion of Islam. Kalam is also called speculative theology, the term speculation here is understood as obtaining knowledge about objects outside of experience with the help of thinking.
24. KARMA -(Sankr. “action”) - the concept of ancient Indian philosophy. It is believed that even the most insignificant action of a person has an impact on the entire flow of life, and this cause sooner or later necessarily gives rise to a consequence, which can be good or bad. Positive deeds will lead to happiness, negative deeds to suffering. This moral law is called karma.
25. CATEGORIES- forms of awareness in terms of universal ways of man's relationship to the world, reflecting the most general and essential properties, the laws of nature, society and thinking.
26. CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE- the concept of Kant's philosophy, a universally valid moral prescription, as opposed to a personal principle (maxim); a rule expressing an obligation (objective coercion to do so and not otherwise).
27. KISILIK - category of the Kazakh world outlook, characterizes a person, first of all, as highly moral, kind, sympathetic, living in peace and harmony with the people around him, who has found himself in life and society. Consonant with the concept of "personality".
28. CLERICALISM(Latin clericalis - church) - a set of aspirations aimed at strengthening the authority and strengthening the influence of the Catholic Church and its head.
29. SPACE(Greek - Universe) - the world, conceived as an ordered unity (as opposed to chaos). For the first time the world was called the cosmos by Pythagoras, who drew attention to the order and harmony reigning in it.
30. CREATIVITY- a generative ability, a characteristic feature of a creative personality, process, product, manifested in a change in the universe of culture, the experience of an individual or social significance.
31. CREATIONISM- the religious doctrine of the creation of the world by a supernatural being.
32. CRITICISM- installation, methodological approach inherent in philosophical and scientific-theoretical thinking. Criticism suggests that there is no universal method that provides a strictly logical increment of true knowledge, and therefore the task of a scientist is to search for and reject false theories using formal logical methods.
33. CULTURE- a specific way of organizing and developing human life activity, represented in the products of material and spiritual labor, in the system of social norms and institutions, in material and spiritual values, in the totality of people's relations to nature, to each other and to themselves.
34. CUMULATIVISM- the methodological setting of the philosophy of science, according to which the development of knowledge occurs through the gradual addition of new provisions to the accumulated amount of true knowledge.
35. LIBIDO(lat. libido - attraction, desire, passion, aspiration) - one of the basic concepts of psychoanalysis developed by Freud. Libido means in Freud a sexual attraction, mostly unconscious.
36. PERSONALITY- the human individual in his social relations.
37. MATTER- (from Latin material - substance) - this is an infinite set of all objects and systems existing in the world, the substratum of any properties, connections, relationships and forms of movement.
38. MACHISM- a subjective-idealistic direction in the philosophy and methodology of science, put forward at the beginning of the 20th century in the works of Mach, Avenarius and their students, as well as in the works of K. Pearson and P. Duhem.
39. MENTALITY- a deep level of collective and individual consciousness, including the unconscious. Mentality is a set of readinesses, attitudes and predispositions of an individual or a social group to act, think, feel and perceive the world in a certain way.
40. METAPHYSICS- a philosophical doctrine of the ultimate, superexperimental principles and principles of being, knowledge, culture.
41. METHOD(Greek metodos - path, study, tracing) - the path of knowledge, a way to achieve a certain goal, a set of methods for practical and theoretical development of reality.
42. METHODOLOGY- a set of cognitive means, methods, techniques used in any science. A field of knowledge that studies the means, prerequisites and principles of organizing cognitive and practical-transformative activity.
43. WORLD VIEW- a system of principles, views, values, ideals and beliefs that determine both the attitude to reality, a general understanding of the world, and life positions, programs of people's activities.
44. MODALITY- characterization of the features of the existence of some object or phenomenon, the course of the process, as well as ways to build and understand judgments and logical reasoning about objects, phenomena, events and processes.
45. MONAD(Greek monas - unit) - physical and mental element of reality. Considered by J. Bruno and Leibniz, but Leibniz gave the most complete interpretation. Monads he calls the simple substances of body and soul.
46. MUTAZILLIT(Arabic for “isolated”) is one of the authoritative schools of kalam with a clearly expressed rationalist direction. The Mutazillites, who did not limit themselves to considering only religious problems and strove to study the problems of nature, society, anthrosophy and philosophy, laid the foundation for falsafah.
47. MUTAKALLIM - followers of Kalam, their fundamental difference from the dogmatists was that when considering questions about God, free will and divine justice, they used rational methods of argumentation. Thus, the Mutakallims gradually separated theological and secular knowledge.
48. NAMYS - one of the main categories of the Kazakh world outlook. It characterizes a high level of pride for one's freedom and independence, conscience and faith; the elevation of one's own "I" as a conscious being and the ability to control this feeling at the level of consciousness.
49. NATURALISM- a philosophical position that identifies everything that exists with nature, rejects the understanding of nature as part of being and excludes everything supernatural from the theoretical explanation.
50. SCIENTIFIC PICTURE OF THE WORLD- a holistic picture of ideas about the general properties and patterns of reality, built as a result of generalization and synthesis of fundamental scientific concepts, principles and theories.
51. NEOPOSITIVISM(logical positivism) is a modern form of positivism. Understanding philosophy as a kind of activity that boils down to the analysis of natural and artificial languages, neopositivists have achieved certain results in clarifying the role of sign-symbolic means in scientific knowledge, in the possibility of mathematization of knowledge, the relationship between the theoretical apparatus and the empirical basis of science. .
52. NOMINALISM(from lat. nomen name, name) - a philosophical view, according to which universal concepts, universals, do not have any real prototype outside of thinking and therefore represent only subjective forms of thought. For nominalism, universals, i.e. universal concepts are simple words that serve as signs of things and their properties.
53. ONTOLOGY- the doctrine of being, of being, of its forms and fundamental principles, of the most general definitions and categories of being.
54. ALIENATION- the relationship between the subject and any of its functions, emerging as a result of a break in the original unity, leading to the impoverishment of the nature of the subject and the change, perversion, rebirth of the nature of the alienated function; as well as the process of breaking this unity.
55. PANTHEISM -(Greek Pan - all and theos - God) - the doctrine that everything is God; a doctrine that deifies the universe, nature.
56. PARADIGM- one of the key concepts of modern philosophy of science. Denotes a set of beliefs, values ​​and technical means adopted by the scientific community and ensuring the existence of a scientific tradition.
57. PERSONALISM- a philosophical position that recognizes the personality and its spiritual values ​​as the highest meaning of earthly civilization.
58. PLURALISM- a philosophical and ideological position, according to which there are many independent and irreducible principles or types of being (pluralism in ontology), forms and principles of knowledge, theories, methods (pluralism in epistemology), equal and sovereign individuals and groups (pluralism in ethics). and sociology), values ​​and value orientations, expressed in diverse ideologies and beliefs, competing with each other and fighting for recognition (pluralism in axiology).
59. POSITIVISM- a philosophical direction based on the principle that all genuine, "positive" (positive) knowledge can only be obtained as a result of individual special sciences and their synthetic associations and that philosophy, as a special science that claims to be an independent study of reality, has no right to exist .
60. KNOWLEDGE- the highest form of reflection of objective reality.
61. CONCEPT- a thought that reflects in a generalized form the objects and phenomena of reality and the connections between them by fixing general and specific features, which are the properties of objects and phenomena and the relationship between them.
62. POSTPOSITIVISM arose and developed in the middle of the 20th century. on the basis of criticism and self-criticism of neopositivism. The delimitation of scientific knowledge from non-scientific is seen in the fact that scientific knowledge can in principle be refuted with the help of experimental data.
63. PRACTICE- material, sensual-objective, goal-setting human activity, which has as its content the development and transformation of natural and social objects and constitutes the general basis, the driving force for the development of human society and knowledge.
64. PERFORMANCE- an image of a previously perceived object or phenomenon, as well as an image created by a productive imagination; the form of feelings reflected in the form of visual-figurative knowledge.
65. SPACE- the form of existence of matter, characterizing its extent, structure, coexistence and interaction of elements in all material systems. Space and time are universal, universal categories of being. Space expresses the order of arrangement of simultaneously coexisting objects, time - the sequence of existence of successive phenomena.
66. PSYCHOANALYSIS- a method of psychotherapy and psychological teaching that focuses on unconscious mental processes and motivations. Was developed in con. 19 - beg. 20th century Freud.
67. RATIONAL- reasonable assimilation of reality by man.
68. RATIONALISM- a philosophical direction that recognizes the mind as the basis of knowledge and behavior of people. Rationalism opposes both irrationalism and sensationalism (empiricism).
69. REDUCTIONISM- a methodological program focused on solving the problem of the unity of scientific knowledge based on the development of a unified language common to all scientific disciplines.
70. RELIGIOUS PICTURE OF THE WORLD- the main element is the image of a single God (monotheistic religions) or many gods (polytheistic religions). All religions at all times believe that our empirical reality is not independent and not self-sufficient, but is of a derivative created nature, since it is secondary, there is a result, a projection of another - real, true reality - God or gods.
71. RELATIVISM- the methodological principle of the analysis and interpretation of knowledge, worldview systems, culture, consisting in the absolutization of the qualitative instability of phenomena, their dependence on various conditions and situations.
72. SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS- selection by a person of himself from the objective world, awareness and evaluation of his attitude to the world, himself as a person, his actions, actions, thoughts and feelings, desires and interests.
73. CONSCIOUSNESS- the highest form of reflection of objective reality peculiar only to a person, a way of his attitude to the world and himself, mediated by the universal forms of socio-historical activity of people.
74. SEMANTICS- a section of linguistics and logic, which explores the problems associated with the meaning, meaning and interpretation of signs and sign expressions.
75. SENSATIONALISM- direction in the theory of knowledge, according to which sensibility is the main form of reliable knowledge. Sensationalism seeks to derive the entire content of knowledge from the activity of the sense organs.
76. SYMBOL- a concept that fixes the ability of material things, events, as well as sensual images to express an ideal content that is different from their immediate, sensual-corporeal being.
77. STRUCTURALISM AND POSTSTRUCTURALISM- a common name for a number of trends in modern philosophical and humanitarian knowledge, associated with the search for logical structures that objectively exist behind the diversity of cultural phenomena. Structuralism sees its main task in the search for stable logical structures, i.e. stable connections of objects. A continuation, but also a self-criticism of structuralism, was post-structuralism, which recognized the impossibility of reducing the subject to structures, which to a large extent meant a return to man as a subject.
78. SUBLIMATION- in psychology, the mental process of transforming and switching the energy of affective drives to the goals of social activity and cultural creativity.
79. SUBSTANCE- objective reality, considered from the side of its internal unity; matter in the aspect of the unity of all forms of its movement; the ultimate foundation that allows reducing sensory diversity and variability of properties to something permanent, relatively stable and independently existing.
80. CREATION- an activity that generates something qualitatively new, never before.
81. TENGRIANISM - the religion of nature, which includes early totemistic, animistic, fetishistic ideas, the central provisions of which were the belief in Tengri as the supreme deity of Heaven-Cosmos and the cult of ancestors, which expressed the unity of nature and man.
82. TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM- a methodological setting that attributes decisive importance in the development of socio-economic structures to changes in the technical and technological aspects of production.
83. TECHNOPHOBIA- a concept that reflects the situation in which the alienated world of technical actions and objects is perceived by a person as a threat to his being.
84. TRANSCENDENTAL- relating to a priori (out-of-experimental or pre-experimental) conditions of the possibility of cognition.
85. TRANSCENDENT- a term that arose in scholastic philosophy and characterizes everything that goes beyond sensory experience, empirical knowledge of the world; subject of religious and metaphysical knowledge.
86. UNIVERSALISM - comprehensiveness, versatility, all-embracing knowledge, striving for integrity, a form of thinking that considers the universe as a whole and tries to explain, understand and derive the individual from this whole that prevails over everything.
87. FALSAFA(Arabic pronunciation of the Greek term philosophy) - the philosophy of the Arab philosophers of the Middle Ages, guided by ancient models of philosophizing.
88. PHENOMENON- a concept correlative with the concept of essence and opposed to it. It suggests such a way of viewing reality, when a person moves from naive realism (“I see things”) to the realization that the phenomena of things are not identical to themselves.
89. PHENOMENOLOGY(Greek letters, the doctrine of phenomena) - at first one of the philosophical disciplines, later a philosophical trend that sought to free philosophical consciousness from naturalistic attitudes (sharply dismembering the object and subject), to achieve its own area of ​​\u200b\u200bphilosophical analysis - the reflection of consciousness about its acts and about the given in their content, to reveal the ultimate characteristics, the original foundations of knowledge, human existence and culture.
90. PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY- an area of ​​philosophical knowledge covering the ontological issues of the historical process - such as the meaning and direction of history, the division and sequence of the main historical eras, the specifics of the historical process, the relationship between history and nature, freedom and the need for historical creativity, as well as epistemological and logical and methodological problems historical science.
91. PHILOSOPHY OF CULTURE- a philosophical discipline that studies culture in the entire volume of its historical formation and in the entire depth of its structural specifications.
92. PHILOSOPHY OF MYTH- a field of philosophy that studies the structure of mythological consciousness, the functions of myth as a cultural and psychological phenomenon.
93. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE- a philosophical direction that explores the characteristics of scientific and cognitive activity. In the historical and cultural context, the focus of the philosophy of science has been and is the following problems: a) the idea of ​​the unity of scientific knowledge and the associated task of building a holistic scientific picture of the world, analysis of the concepts of determinism, causality, correlation of dynamic and static patterns; b) structural characteristics of scientific research - the ratio of analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, logic and intuition, discovery and justification, theory and facts; c) the problem of demarcation - the separation of science and metaphysics, mathematics and natural science, socio-humanitarian and natural science knowledge; d) the problem of substantiating scientific knowledge, analysis of verification procedures; e) consideration of research paradigms; f) the problem of humanization of scientific knowledge.
94. PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION- in a broad sense - a set of philosophical attitudes towards religion, the conceptualization of its nature and functions, as well as philosophical justifications for the existence of a deity, philosophical reasoning about its nature and relation to the world and man; in the narrow sense of the word - an explicit autonomous philosophical discourse about deity and religion, a special type of philosophizing.
95. PHILOSOPHY OF TECHNOLOGY- the direction of philosophical, methodological and ideological studies of the phenomenon of technology in the modern world. The focus of research on the philosophy of technology is the problems of analyzing the structure and dynamics of technical knowledge, the methodology of technical sciences, as well as ontological, epistemological and anthropological aspects of the technical development of reality by man. At the moment, technology in a philosophical context is considered as a complex, complex, multifaceted and contradictory phenomenon and a factor in the development of human civilization.
96. PHILOSOPHICAL ANTHROPOLOGY- in a broad sense, the philosophical doctrine of the nature and essence of man. Philosophical anthropology, in a narrow sense, is a section of philosophical knowledge that considers the whole complex of complex, diverse problems associated with the existence and understanding of a person and his relationships.
97. PHILOSOPHICAL HERMENEUTICS- originally (from ancient times) this word meant the art of interpreting texts. Since the 20th century (M. Heidegger, G. Gadamer, P. Anker, etc.) this word refers to the philosophical doctrine of understanding and comprehending the meaning (“essence of the matter”) of the phenomena of spiritual culture.
98. PHILOSOPHICAL PICTURE OF THE WORLD- very diverse, but they are all built around the relationship: man and the world. This relation can be understood materialistically or idealistically, dialectically or metaphysically, objectively or subjectivistically, and so on.
99. CHARISMA- an exceptional spiritual talent of a person, perceived by others as a supernatural, divine origin power of comprehension and influence, inaccessible to ordinary people.
100. CIVILIZATION - level, stage of development of material and spiritual culture.
101. HUMANITY (jen)- one of the important categories of the philosophy of Confucius, reflecting, first of all, the relationship between father and son, rulers and officials, friends, brothers, and only then - the relationship between all people.
102. HEURISTIC- a method, or methodological discipline, the subject of which is the solution of problems under conditions of uncertainty. The main problem of heuristics is the elimination of contradictions.
103. EXISTENTIALISM(philosophy of existence) is an irrationalist direction of modern philosophy, recognizing the only true reality of the existence of the human person. The general position of existentialism is the statement about the primacy of human existence in relation to the social essence of the individual
104. EXPLICATION- replacing an inaccurate concept with a more accurate one. An explication denotes an explanation of symbols and conventions.
105. EMPIRICISM(Greek emperia - experience) - an epistemological direction that considers the process of cognition only through sensory experience (empiricism) and a methodological principle that claims that all science should be based on life and moral experience.
106. ENTELECHY(Greek entelechia - completion, realization) - an active principle that turns a possibility into reality, and reality brings the existence of a possibility to completion.
107. EPISTEMOLOGY- a branch of philosophy that studies the problems of the nature of cognition, the relationship of knowledge to reality, explores the general prerequisites for the cognitive process, and identifies the conditions for its truth.

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Reference material contains a list of basic philosophical terms and concepts briefly. The Philosophy Dictionary will be useful for high school students and students in preparing for exams, tests, and the Unified State Examination.

Glossary of basic philosophical terms and concepts

BUT

abstraction- this is a mental selection of an object in abstraction from its connections with other objects, any property of an object in abstraction from its other properties, any relation of objects in abstraction from the objects themselves.

Agnosticism- a philosophical setting, according to which it is impossible to unequivocally prove the correspondence of knowledge to reality, and therefore, to build a true comprehensive system of knowledge.

Adequacy- conformity, proportionality, fidelity, accuracy.

Axiology- a philosophical doctrine about the nature of values, about the forms and methods of a person's value projection of his life aspirations into the future, the choice of guidelines for current life and the justification or condemnation of the past, "other" and universally significant.

Axiology- a philosophical discipline that studies the category of "value", the characteristics, structures and hierarchies of the value world, the ways of its cognition and its ontological status, as well as the nature and specifics of value judgments. Axiology also includes the study of the value aspects of other philosophical, as well as individual scientific disciplines, and in a broader sense, the entire spectrum of social, artistic and religious practice, human civilization and culture in general.

Analysis- the procedure for mental, and often real, dismemberment of the object under study (object, phenomenon, process), the properties of the object or the relationship between objects into parts (features, properties, relationships). The reverse procedure of analysis is synthesis.

Anticumulativeism- the opposite of cumulative.

Anthropogenesis- the process of the origin of man and his formation as a society, a being.

Anthropology

Anthropology- the science of the origin and evolution of man, human races, based on the study of the human body, natural differences between people.

Anthroposociogenesis- the historical process of the transformation of a person as an anthropos, a biological being, into a member of society, the bearer of its basic, primarily production, moral and aesthetic relations.

Anthropomorphism- endowing objects (animals, natural phenomena, God, etc.) with human properties, that is, making them like a person.

anthropocentrism- a religious-idealistic view of man as the center and the highest goal of the universe.

Aporia- an intractable task.

Apologetics- protection of the defenders, biased protection, praise of something.

archetype- a concept that goes back to the tradition of Platonism and plays a major role in the "analytical psychology" developed by Jung.

arche(Greek arhe - beginning) - a single foundation of creation and the problem of the integral unity of multiple worlds. Arche is the first matter, pra-matter, the initial state of things, the oldest form in the historical sense of the word.

Atman- one of the basic concepts in the religious and mythological system of Hinduism. In Vedic literature, especially in the Upanishads. denotes the subjective mental principle, individual, being, "soul", understood both in personal and in universal terms.

B

Immortality- belief in the perpetuity of a human being, especially the human soul.

Unconscious- a term incorrectly applied to the human psyche. Usually they take for the unconscious or confuse with the unconscious sensations that pass amnesically or almost amnesically (for the subsequent flow of here-now-so of a given subject), subthreshold irritations, peripheral sensations outside the zone of attention and concentration, metapsychic (processes in hypothetical adjacent consciousnesses closed to a given ), "closed" neurodynamic processes (having no representation in the here-now-so observable).

Unconscious collective- the concept of Jung's analytical psychology, denoting the totality of universal unconscious mental structures inherited by people, mechanisms, archetypes, instincts, impulses, images, etc., transmitted from generation to generation as a substratum of mental existence, including the mental experience of previous generations. According to Jung, the main content of K.B. constitute instincts and archetypes.

God- in developed religious systems, the Absolute, incomprehensible in Its Essence, revealing Itself in the creation of the world and its care.

Biotechnology- the use of biological processes and biological systems for the production of useful products, medicines, biological weapons, etc. In principle, biotechnology can synthesize all organic substances. Modern biotechnology is based so far on four of its newest directions: a) genetic engineering; b) cell technology; c) enzymatic enzyme systems for the production of a large class of biologically active substances; d) cloning of living organisms.

« noble husband"- the perfect husband, the original meaning is the child of the ruler. Synonyms - great man, humane man.

Brahman- a representative of the highest caste in India, a priest in Brahmanism and Hinduism.

Buddha- in Buddhism, a being who has reached absolute perfection in the course of many rebirths and is able to show others the path to religious salvation.

Being- a category that fixes the basis of existence (for the world as a whole or for any kind of existence); in the structure of philosophical knowledge it is the subject of ontology; in the theory of knowledge is considered as basic for any possible picture of the world and for all other categories.

AT

Faith- an emotional and personal way of a person's attitude to the world (natural or supernatural), which consists in accepting the reality of this world without the need for appropriate evidence.

Verification- a methodological concept denoting the process of establishing the truth of scientific statements as a result of their empirical verification.

Perception- sensory cognition (subjectively presented as direct) of objects (physical things, living beings, people) and objective situations (relationships of objects, movements, events).

Time- the form of a successive change of phenomena and the duration of the states of matter.

unity- a philosophical doctrine that reveals the internal organic unity of being as a universe in the form of interpenetration and separation of its constituent elements, their identity to each other and to the whole, while maintaining their quality and specificity.

Vulgar materialism- current in philosophy ser. 19th century The theoretical predecessor was the French materialist Cabanis, his main representatives are the philosophers K. Focht, J. Moleshott, L. Bucher.

G

Hedonism- a type of ethical teachings, as well as a system of moral views, according to which all moral definitions (the content of the concepts of good and evil, etc.) are derived from pleasure (positive) and suffering (negative).

Epistemology- a branch of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge, its general prerequisites, ways, possibilities, the relationship of knowledge to reality.

State- political integrity created by a national or multinational community in a certain territory, where, with the help of a political elite that monopolizes power, the legal order is maintained, including the legitimate right to use violence.

Harmony- a cultural setting that focuses on understanding the universe (both as a whole and its fragments) and man from the position of assuming their deep internal order.

hermeneutics- the original meaning is the art of interpretation, the doctrine of the interpretation of texts.

Hypothesis- a scientific assumption or assumption, the truth value of which is uncertain. A hypothesis is distinguished as a method for the development of scientific knowledge, which includes the promotion and subsequent experimental verification of assumptions, and as a structural element of a scientific theory.

Globalization- integration of economic activity by divisions of private capital on a global scale, the establishment of a market economy in most states and regions, the development of economic communities (EEC, the Eurasian Economic Community, etc.).

Humanism- 1) the movement of educated people that developed during the Renaissance, mainly in Italy, united by “interest in antiquity”, the study and commenting on the monuments of ancient classical (primarily Latin) literature; 2) a special type of philosophical worldview, in the center of which is a person with his earthly deeds and accomplishments, with his inherent abilities and inclinations, with his characteristic norms of behavior and relationships.

D

Dao- the concept of ancient Chinese philosophy, denoting that: having no name, no form; being eternally one, unchanging, imperishable, existing from eternity; being inaudible, invisible, inaccessible to comprehension - indefinable, but perfect; being in a state of rest and inescapable movement; acting as the root cause of all changes, is the "mother of all things", "the root of everything".

Traffic- the mode of existence of matter, in the most general form - change in general, any interaction of objects. acts as a unity of variability and stability, discontinuity and continuity, absolute and relative.

Deduction- transition from the general to the particular; in a more technical sense, the term "deduction" refers to the process of logical inference, i.e. transition according to certain rules of logic from some given sentences-parcels to their consequences (conclusions).

Deduction- a method of cognition that involves movement from the general, given with obviousness to the particular unknown, or the process of logical inference.

Disinformation- communication of deliberately erroneous, distorted, false information in order to mislead the person being informed.

Deism- a religious concept in which God is seen as the First Cause of the world, but not as the Almighty.

Determinism- the teaching of classical philosophy about the regular universal interconnection and interdependence of the phenomena of objective reality, the result of generalization of concrete historical and concrete scientific concepts.

Dialectics- a near-philosophical discipline (not science), speculatively analyzing unrelated knowledge and serving various worldview needs.

Activity- a specifically human form of active attitude to the world around with the aim of changing it.

Good- in the broad sense of the word, as a good means a value representation that expresses the positive value of something in relation to a certain standard or this standard itself. Depending on the accepted standard, good in the history of philosophy and culture was interpreted as pleasure, benefit, happiness, generally accepted, appropriate to the circumstances, expedient, etc.

Dogma- a doctrine or a separate position, accepted only on the basis of faith or blind obedience to authority.

Duty- one of the fundamental concepts of ethics, which denotes a morally reasoned coercion to act, a moral necessity fixed as a subjective principle of behavior. Duty expresses the imperative form of morality. The actions themselves, since they are motivated by duty, are called duties.

Dignity- characterization of a person in terms of his intrinsic value, compliance with his own destiny.

Dualism- a philosophical interpretive paradigm based on the idea of ​​the presence of two principles that are irreducible to each other: spiritual and material substances, object and subject, consciousness and bodily organization of a person, as well as good and evil, the natural world and freedom, fact and value, dark and light principles being.

Dualism- a philosophical interpretive paradigm based on the idea of ​​the presence of two principles that are irreducible to each other: spiritual and material substances.

AND

Ren- means "humanity", "humanity", "philanthropy", "mercy", "kindness".

Life- a specific form of organization of matter, characterized by the unity of three points: 1) a hereditary program recorded in the totality of genes (genome), i.e. in the corresponding nucleotide sequences of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA); 2) metabolism, the specificity of which is determined by the hereditary program; 3) self-reproduction in accordance with this program.

Abstraction- (from lat. abstractio - distraction) the process of conceivable selection of some and abstraction from other properties and relationships of an object. One of the sides, forms of cognition, which consists in a mental abstraction from a number of objects and relations between them and the allocation of some property and relationship; designates both the process of such distraction and its results.

Agnosticism- (from the Greek agnostos - inaccessible to knowledge) the doctrine according to which a person is not able to know the essence of things, cannot have reliable knowledge about them.

Axiology- the doctrine of the nature and structure of values, their place in reality, the relationship of values ​​among themselves

Analysis- a way of mental or real dismemberment of the object of knowledge into parts in order to identify its structural elements and the relationship between them.

Anthology- a branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental principles of the universe and the most general categories of existence.

Anthropology- philosophical doctrine of man in his multidimensional incarnations

Anthropology- a system of ideas about nature, society, thinking.

Atomism- the doctrine of the discrete structure of matter.

Unconscious- a set of psychological processes, operations and states that are not represented in the mind of the subject.

Being- 1) means the whole world (materialistic philosophy). A philosophical concept denoting the objective world, matter, existing independently of consciousness. Considering the materiality of the world and its B. as identical concepts, dialectical materialism rejects the idealistic idea of ​​B. as existing before matter and independently of it.

2) the existence of anything at all. The most general and abstract concept denoting the existence of something at all. In this case, B. should be distinguished from reality, existence, reality, etc., as more specific and profound characteristics of objective processes and phenomena.

Interaction - the universal form of connections between bodies and phenomena, expressed in their mutual influence on each other and change.

Possibility- modality - characterization of the state of affairs as logically necessary, logically random and possible.

Perception- this is a holistic image of the subject; combination of sensations, due to which the object is perceived as something whole.

Time- the form of existence of matter, expressing the duration of its existence, the sequence of changing states in the change and development of all material systems; measure of variability, nonexistence.

Hypothesis- 1) reasonable (not completely) assumption about the causes of the phenomenon;

2) the process of cognition, which consists in making an assumption, substantiating it (incompletely) and proving / refuting.

Epistemology- a branch of philosophy that studies the problems of the nature of knowledge and its capabilities, the relationship of knowledge to reality, identifies the conditions for its reliability and truth

Gnoseology - a branch of philosophy that studies the problems of the nature of cognition and its cognition, the relationship of knowledge to reality.

Traffic- a way of existence of matter, its universal attribute, this is any interaction of material objects.

Deduction- the method of rational consciousness, which consists in extracting the necessary derivable consequences from the totality of initial statements.

Reality- objective reality in general in all its specificity, the totality of natural and socio-historical phenomena, that which really exists and develops, that contains its essence.

Determinism- a representation according to which for every phenomenon there are reasons in the presence of which this phenomenon necessarily takes place.

Presocratics- philosophers of the VI-V centuries. BC e., as well as their successors in the IV century. BC e., not affected by the influence of the Socratic tradition.

Dualism- a philosophical doctrine based on the recognition of equal rights, not reducible to each other, two principles - spirit and matter, ideal and material.

single- the quality of a certain object, its individuality, originality.

Law- internal essential and stable connection of phenomena in nature and society, causing their orderly change.

Idealism- this is a general designation of philosophical teachings that assert that consciousness, thinking, the spiritual is primary, fundamental, and matter, the physical is secondary, derivative.

Induction- a conclusion in which the premises only confirm the conclusion.

Intelligence- the ability of thinking, rational knowledge, "mind"; in scholasticism - the highest cognitive ability.

Irrationalism- a philosophical movement, where the main attention is paid to feelings, emotions, the inner world of a person.

Logics- a formal science of generally valid forms and means of thought necessary for rational knowledge in any branch of knowledge.

Materialism- solves the main question of philosophy in favor of the primacy of matter, nature, being and considers spiritual consciousness, thinking as a property of matter (as opposed to idealism).

Matter- 1) objective reality reflected by a person in his feelings and thoughts; form of objective existence.

Metaphysics- a philosophical doctrine of superexperienced principles and laws of being in general or any particular type of being (metaphysics H philosophy H ontology).

Method- a way of constructing and substantiating a system of philosophical knowledge.

Methodology- a philosophical doctrine of methods of cognition and transformation of reality.

outlook- a system of the most general ideas and knowledge about the world and a person's place in it, his values ​​and beliefs.

outlook- this is a system of views on the objective world and a person's place in it, as well as people's life positions, their beliefs, ideals, principles of knowledge, value orientations.

attitude- a holistic awareness and experience, the impact on a person of reality in the form of sensations, emotions.

world outlook- the highest stage of the worldview formation of a person, a developed worldview with complex interweaving of multifaceted relationships to reality, with the most generalized synthesized views and ideas about the world, one's place in it.

Observation- purposeful perception, due to the task of the activity.

Natural philosophy- a speculative interpretation of nature, considered in its entirety.

The science- the process of building a systematic image of a part of reality, focused on identifying its general properties.

Nominalism- a philosophical doctrine that denies ontological meaning.

An object– 1) an independent center of existential activity (in ontology);

2) what the subject's activity is aimed at (in epistemology).

Objective reality- an infinite set of all objects and systems existing in the world, the substratum of any properties, connections, relationships and forms of movement.

Ontology- the doctrine of being, the origins of all things, the criteria for existence, general principles and laws of existence

Ontology- a branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental principles of being, the most general essences and categories of being.

Negation- a category that expresses the relationship of two successive stages (states) of a developing object or a condition for changing an object, in which some elements are not simply destroyed, but stored in a new quality.

Feeling- subjective image of objective reality.

Patristics- a set of theological, philosophical, political and social doctrines of Christian thinkers of the 8th century.

Positivism- the direction of Western philosophy, declaring specific (empirical) sciences as the only source of knowledge and denying the cognitive value of philosophical research (the founder is O. Pont).

Positivism- a philosophical direction based on the fact that all true knowledge is the cumulative result of special sciences.

peace- result or method of movement.

Praxeology- the doctrine of the practical relationship between man and the world, the activity of our spirit, the goal-setting and effectiveness of man

Practice- the goal-setting activity of people, the development and transformation of reality.

Performance- sensual reflection of an object, allows you to reproduce the object mentally in its absence.

Space- the form of existence of matter, characterizing its extent, structure, interaction of elements.

Space and time- universal forms of existence of matter.

Opposite- one of the sides of the dialectical contradiction, which represents and

excludes the other opposite; extreme degree of dissimilarity in something similar; the presence of internal unity of opposite sides.

Contradiction- a statement about the simultaneous truth and falsity of a statement.

Development- a significant, necessary movement, a change in something in time.

Difference- dissimilarity, discrepancy, dissimilarity in objects or phenomena.

Rationalism- (from Latin - "mind") is the doctrine according to which all our knowledge is derived from the mind (founder - Rene Descartes).

Reality- the being of things in its comparison with non-being, as well as with other forms of being.

self-awareness- awareness and evaluation by a person of himself as a person and as a subject of practical and cognitive activity.

Synthesis- a concept opposite to analysis, which characterizes the way in which various elements are combined into a whole.

System- a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, forming a certain integrity, unity.

jump- a radical change in the development of an object or phenomenon as a result of qualitative changes.

Meaning- this is the functioning of meanings in the processes of activity and consciousness of specific individuals; concretization of the meanings of the subject.

Spontaneous materialism- an unconscious, unformed, philosophically unconscious conviction in the objective reality of the external world.

Consciousness- a subjective reflection of objective reality, the highest level of spiritual activity of a person as a social being.

Sophism- logically incorrect reasoning, presented as correct.

social philosophy- a section describing the specific features of society, its dynamics and prospects, the logic of social processes, the meaning and purpose of human history.

Subject- 1) a logical term related to the structure of a judgment and denoting what is being discussed, what constitutes the subject of the statement;

2) the true being, the substance of the thing;

3) the source of subject-practical and cognitive activity directed at the object.

Judgment- a thought that affirms the presence or absence of any state of affairs.

Existence- all the variety of variability of things, their connections and interactions.

Essence- the meaning of this thing, that it is in itself.

Essence and phenomenon- dialectical interrelated characteristics of the subject.

Scholasticism- a type of religious philosophy characterized by the subordination of theology.

scentheism- a trend of philosophy that absolutizes the role of science in the system of culture and life of society.

Creation- the process of human activity, creating new material and spiritual values.

Theory- a complex and most developed form of organization of scientific knowledge, representing an integral and logically consistent system that gives a comprehensive idea of ​​the essential properties of a particular phenomenon or area of ​​reality.

Transcendental- a term denoting those aspects of being that go beyond the scope of the limited existence of the finite world

Universals- general concepts.

Philosophy- this is a form of social consciousness, the doctrine of the general principles of being and cognition, of the relationship of man to the world.

Esoteric texts- secret, hidden texts intended only for initiates, associated with religious rites, mystical teachings and magical formulas.

existentialism- a philosophical direction that brings to the fore the question of the meaning of life of a unique human personality, of its individual way of being.

Existential Factors- factors of human existence.

Element- a member of a series, part of a whole.

Empiricism- a direction in philosophy that opposes rationalism and is most consistently presented in the theory of knowledge (the main element of knowledge is human feelings).

Aesthetics is a philosophical science that studies two interrelated circles of phenomena: the sphere of the aesthetic as a specific manifestation of a person's integral relationship to the world and the sphere of people's artistic activity.

Ethics- philosophical science, the object of study of which is morality, morality as a form of social consciousness, as one of the most important aspects of human life.

Language- a system of signs that serves as a means of human communication and thinking.