Christianity and its

distribution in the world.

Plan.

Introduction

1. Origin of Christianity

3. The struggle for the image of Christ

4. Rivals of Christianity

5. Bishops and their power

6. Emperor Constantine

7. Orthodoxy.

8. Catholicism.

9. Protestantism.

10. Spread of Christianity

11. Christianity today.

Conclusion

Introduction

A huge, essentially unlimited number of books, articles and other publications have been written about the origins of Christianity. Christian authors, enlightenment philosophers, representatives of biblical criticism, and atheist authors worked in this field. This is understandable, since we are talking about a historical phenomenon - Christianity, which created numerous churches, has millions of followers, occupied and still occupies a large place in the world, in the ideological, economic and political life of peoples and states. Christianity - (from the Greek Christos - anointed) is one of the so-called world religions (along with Buddhism and Islam). Christianity is widespread in the countries of Europe, America, Australia, and also as a result of active missionary activity - in Africa, the Middle East and in a number of regions of the Far East. There are no exact data on the number of followers of Christianity. The main ideas of Christianity: the redemptive mission of Jesus Christ, the upcoming second coming of Christ, the Last Judgment, heavenly reward and the establishment of the kingdom of heaven. So what is Christianity? In short, it is a religion based on the belief that two thousand years ago God came into the world. He was born, received the name Jesus, lived in Judea, preached, suffered and died on the cross as a man. His death and subsequent resurrection from the dead changed the fate of all mankind. His preaching marked the beginning of a new, European civilization. For Christians, the main miracle was not the word of Jesus, but He Himself. The main work of Jesus was his being: being with people, being on the cross.

Christians believe that the world was created by one eternal God, and created without evil.

The basis of the dogma and worship of Christianity is the Bible, or Holy Scripture. The experience of the prophets of the Jewish people, who communicated with God, and the experience of people who knew Christ in His earthly life, made up the Bible. The Bible is not a statement of faith or the history of mankind. The Bible is a story about how God searched for man.

The Christian Church included the Jewish Old Testament in the Bible; The exclusively Christian part of the Bible is the New Testament (it includes the 4 Gospels telling about Jesus Christ, the “Acts of the Apostles”, the letters of the apostles and the Apocalypse). The common feature that unites Christian denominations, churches, and sects is only faith in Christ, although even here there are differences between them.

Main branches of Christianity:

1. Catholicism;

2. Orthodoxy (there are 15 Orthodox independent churches and several autonomous churches.);

3. Protestantism (includes 3 main movements: Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism - and a large number of sects, many of which have turned into independent churches: Baptists, Methodists, Adventists and others.).

Origin of Christianity

Christianity arose in Palestine in the 1st century. AD, which, like the entire Mediterranean, was part of the Roman Empire. Its relationship with Judaism, as already mentioned, is manifested in the fact that the first part of the Bible, the Old Testament, is the holy book of both Jews and Christians (the second part of the Bible, the New Testament, is recognized only by Christians and is the most important for them). The undoubted proximity of early Christianity to the Jewish community of the Essenes is also evidenced by scrolls found in 1947 in the Dead Sea area. The commonality of ideological principles among the Essenes and the original Christians can be traced in messianism - the expectation of the imminent coming of the Teacher of Righteousness, in eschatological ideas, in the interpretation of the ideas of human sinfulness, in rituals, in the organization of communities and attitudes towards property. The relatively rapid spread of Christianity in the Asia Minor provinces of the Roman Empire and in Rome itself was due to a number of socio-historical factors. The emerging crisis of the ancient order gave rise to general uncertainty about the future, a feeling of apathy and hopelessness. Antagonism intensified not only between slaves and freemen, but also between Roman citizens and subjects of the provinces, between the Roman hereditary nobility and the enriched horsemen.

The Roman religion, like various religious teachings of the East, could not give comfort to the disadvantaged and, due to its national character, did not allow the idea of ​​universal justice, equality, and salvation to be affirmed. Christianity proclaimed the equality of all people as sinners. It gave the slave consolation, the hope of gaining freedom in a simple and understandable way - through the knowledge of the divine truth, which Christ brought to earth to forever atone for all human sins and vices.

Christian apologetics claims that, unlike all other religions of the world, Christianity was not created by people, but was given to humanity by God in a ready-made and complete form. However, the history of religious teachings indicates that Christianity is not free from religious, philosophical, ethical and other influences. Christianity adopted and rethought the previous ideological concepts of Judaism, Mithraism, ancient Eastern religions, and philosophical views. All this enriched and cemented the new religion, turning it into a powerful cultural and intellectual force, capable of opposing itself to all national-ethnic cults and turning into a mass national movement. The assimilation by early Christianity of the previous religious and cultural heritage did not at all turn it into a conglomeration of disparate ideas, but contributed to a fundamentally new teaching to gain universal recognition.

A particularly noticeable influence on the foundations of Christian doctrine was exerted by the Neoplatonism of Philo of Alexandria (c. 25 BC - c. 50 AD) and the moral teaching of the Roman Stoic Seneca (c. 4 BC - 65 AD). Philo combined the concept of Logos in the biblical tradition, which considers Logos as an internal law directing the movement of the Cosmos. Philo's Logos is the sacred Word that allows one to contemplate Existence. There is no other way to know God, only through the Logos - the Word. Philo’s teaching about the innate sinfulness of all people, about repentance, about Being as the beginning of the world, about ecstasy as a means of approaching God, about logoi, among which the Son of God is the highest Logos and other logoi, called angels, served as one of the ideological prerequisites for Christian ideas about the hierarchy of spiritual principles, had a significant influence on the formation of Christianity.

The moral teaching of Christianity, especially about the achievement of virtue, is close to the views of Lucretius Annaeus Seneca. Seneca considered the main thing for every person to be the achievement of freedom of spirit through the awareness of divine necessity. If freedom does not flow from divine necessity, then it will turn out to be slavery. Only obedience to fate gives rise to equanimity of spirit, conscience, moral standards, and universal human values. The affirmation of universal human values ​​does not depend on state requirements, but entirely on sociability. By sociability, Seneca understands the recognition of the unity of human nature, mutual love, universal compassion, the care of each person for others like him, regardless of social status. Seneca recognized the golden rule of morality as a moral imperative, which sounded as follows:

“Treat those below you the way you would like to be treated by those above you.”

A similar formulation is found in the Gospel of Matthew:

“And in everything that you want people to do to you, do so to them.”

Christianity was consonant with Seneca’s principles about the transience and deceitfulness of sensual pleasures, caring for other people, self-restraint in the use of material goods, preventing the rampant passions that are disastrous for society and people, modesty and moderation in everyday life. He was also impressed by the principles of individual ethics formulated by Seneca. Personal salvation presupposes a strict assessment of one’s own life, self-improvement, and the acquisition of divine mercy.

The assimilation by Christianity of various elements of Eastern cults and Hellenistic philosophy did not impoverish, but enriched the new religion. That is why it relatively quickly entered the general flow of Mediterranean culture.

Who are the authors of the Gospel?

As long as Christianity has existed, debates have continued about the identity of its founder. Stories about Jesus Christ, described in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, as well as in the epistles and acts of the apostles, about God the Son, who appeared in the world in the form of a perfect man to take upon himself the sins of people and save them for eternal life, raised a lot of doubts. It turned out that even the information they reported was questionable. After all, it has been established that they are not first-hand, although the persons considered to be their authors should have known everything told there from personal observations. Meanwhile, these supposed eyewitnesses of the events, as well as their friend and chronicler Luke, all used other people's sources. So, for example, Matthew and Luke included almost the entire text of Mark, etc., in their Gospels.

Today we already know how to explain this. The Gospels were not written by Matthew, or Mark, or John, or perhaps even Luke. They were created or collected from various written sources and oral traditions by other authors unknown to us, whose true names we will probably never know. Even the Catholic Church was forced to admit that the question of the authorship of the Gospels is by no means closed, and one cannot object to further scientific research into this problem. Participants of the 2nd Vatican Council, discussing the “Constitution on Revelation,” rejected by a majority vote the following point: “God’s church has always maintained and maintains that the authors of the Gospels are those whose names are named in the canon of sacred books, namely: Matthew, Mark, Luke and John." Instead of listing these names, they decided to write in “holy authors.”

So, the authors of the Gospels were not eyewitnesses of the events. These were compilers who drew their information from the folklore tradition of Christian communities, where even then, by combining facts with legends, a certain stereotype of the biography of Jesus was created, called by some researchers the “proto-gospel” or “proto-gospel”. The Synoptic Gospels are based on this common source, and this explains their similarity, which served as the basis for the belief that their authors, being eyewitnesses of the events, independently tell what actually happened. It is curious that even the Gospel of John did not shake this conviction. It was created in a completely different environment, outside the influence of the synoptic model and gives a completely different image of Jesus.

It is important to emphasize the insignificant significance of the Gospels as sources of information about the true biography of Jesus. But there are two works in the New Testament that, due to their genre, seem more hopeful. This is, first of all, “The Acts of the Holy Apostles”, as well as a collection of messages attributed to St. Paul, St. James, St. John and St. Judas.

Let's talk first of all about the messages, which represent an important source for studying the history of Christianity.

Philological research has shown that of the fourteen letters of Paul, only a part can be considered authentic. Some researchers consider only four messages to be authentic. This point of view was formulated in the middle of the last century by the famous professor of theology in Tübingen Ferdinand Baur, who, after a philological analysis of the texts, came to the conclusion that Paul was the author only of the letters to the Corinthians, Galatians and Philemon.

This conclusion, with only one amendment, was confirmed by modern biblical scholars from the city of Edinburgh: professor of theology MacGregor and his collaborator Morton. In their linguistic research, they used a computer and, based on mathematical calculations, irrefutably established that the unity of language and style connects the five epistles: Romans, Corinthians (both epistles), Galatians and Philemon. There is no doubt that they were written by one person. And since, on the basis of a number of signs that we will not dwell on here, it is considered proven that the author of two letters (the first letter to the Corinthians and the letter to the Galatians) is St. Pavel, then we have to recognize him as the author of the other three.

As for the remaining letters attributed to Paul, it is already clear that they belong to unknown authors who, according to the custom of that time, called themselves by the name of the apostle in order to give greater significance to their arguments. The Epistles to Timothy and Titus, for example, date back to the first half of the 2nd century: they reflect a situation in Christian communities that was simply impossible during Paul’s lifetime. It talks about the fight against heresies that arose when Paul was no longer alive.

What are the authentic letters of Paul? In short, we can say that the author raises a number of doctrinal and moral problems that worried Christian communities at that time. But the main goal of the author of the epistles is to preach a theological idea, which, although it had already begun to emerge among Christians as a result of the syncretic influence of various Hellenistic movements, only Paul consistently developed and expounded.

The main thing in his teaching is the belief that Jesus Christ is God, who, for the sake of atonement for the original sin of mankind, allowed himself to be crucified, was resurrected, ascended to heaven and will return any day to establish the kingdom of God on earth.

In this concept, Jesus, as a specific historical figure, was naturally relegated to the background. Paul, absorbed in his own idea, was not interested in the earthly side of Jesus' life. In his messages, he always calls him “Christ,” which means messiah, or son of God, savior and son of man.

The possibility of such an interpretation of Jesus was made easier for Paul by the fact that he was not personally acquainted with Jesus and therefore did not find himself in the position of those Jews from the Gospel of John who asked with horror and amazement: “Is this not Jesus, the son of Joseph, whose father and mother we know?". How does he say: “I came down from heaven?” (6:42)

All that Paul knew about Jesus he heard from others, mainly from his zealous followers, who in their enthusiastic memoirs portrayed him as a superhuman being. This abstract interpretation, in which Jesus was deprived of specific features and became exclusively the embodiment of a theological idea, led to the fact that Jesus the man is almost completely absent from Paul's letters.

As for the remaining messages, many scholars (especially the German biblical scholar Marxen) directly state that none of them belongs to the author indicated in the canon. These are, as experts say, “pseudepigrapha.” It can no longer be established who attributed the authorship to their respective apostles: the authors themselves or later scribes. It is possible that the messages were anonymous for some time, which contributed to the occurrence of such errors or deliberate hoaxes. Some exception here is the first letter of St. John, for it is obvious that it was written by the author of the fourth Gospel.

All of the above does not mean, however, that the messages of the New Testament are not valuable for historians and religious scholars. Their official authors turned out to be fictitious, but not their content. We find in them a reliable, living story, written hot on the heels of events, about various phenomena characteristic of everyday life, customs and social relations in Christian communities scattered around the world.

The authors of the messages, although hidden under the mask of fictitious names, are historically reliable. After all, they really existed and passionately fought for this new person. But these were not apostles. They did not know Jesus personally and cannot be considered eyewitnesses of his life and deeds. Therefore, there is nothing in the messages that could be useful for reconstructing the biography of Christ.

“The Acts of the Apostles” is the only primary source on the history of Christianity up to the 3rd century that has reached us, covering the extremely important thirty years - the period from the crucifixion of Jesus to the appearance of St. Paul in 61 - 63 years. We know how eventful this period was and how decisive it was in the history of the new religion, so it is not surprising that scientists were very intrigued by the question of how true the pictures depicted in the “Acts of the Apostles” are, and whether this work can be considered a reliable source.

First of all, the question arose about the author of this work and the time of its creation. It is considered beyond doubt that the Acts of the Apostles is a continuation of the Gospel of Luke and, together with this gospel, constitutes a single composition by the same author, divided into two volumes corresponding to the two scrolls of that time. This can be seen at least from the first phrase of the “Acts of the Apostles,” which says: “I wrote the first book to you, Theophilus, about everything that Jesus did and taught...”

There are other arguments in favor of the common authorship of these two books of the New Testament. Philologists have established, for example, the identity of style and vocabulary, not to mention the fact that the author dedicates both books to the same person, a certain Theophilus. It is also significant that the prologue to the “Acts of the Apostles” is, as it were, a repetition of the last chapter of the Gospel of Luke, that is, a link connecting both parts of the narrative into one whole.

The question of the time of creation of the “Acts of the Apostles” turned out to be simpler, although this was not without difficulties. There is not a single hint in the text of the work about the destruction of Jerusalem, and some biblical scholars have found this circumstance sufficient to conclude that the Acts of the Apostles was written before the year 70. However, they lost sight of the fact that the “Acts of the Apostles” is the second part of the Gospel of Luke, that this is, in essence, one work written by one author. Meanwhile, in the text of the Gospel there are references to the destruction of Jerusalem and even to the repressions to which the followers of Christ were subjected by the Emperor Domitian, who reigned in 81-96. And since the Acts of the Apostles were written later, or at least at the same time as the Gospel, they should be dated to around the year 90.

The fight for the image of Christ

Ultimately, the debate about Jesus Christ led to the formation of two main schools - mythological and historical.

Representatives of the mythological school believe that science does not have reliable data about Jesus Christ as a historical figure. The Gospel stories about him, written many years after the events described in them, do not contain a real historical basis. In addition, as historical sources of the beginning of the 1st century. they say nothing about such extraordinary events as the resurrection from the dead, about the miracles performed by Christ, about his preaching activities. The mythological school considered one of the important arguments in favor of its point of view to be the non-Palestinian origin of Christianity, as well as the presence of analogies with legends about gods being born, dying and rising in other Eastern cultures, and the presence in the Gospels of a large number of contradictions, inaccuracies, and discrepancies.

The second - historical - school considers Jesus Christ to be a real person, a preacher of a new religion, who formulated a number of fundamental ideas that laid the foundation for the Christian doctrine. The reality of Jesus is confirmed by the reality of a number of gospel characters, such as John the Baptist, the Apostle Paul, and others directly related to Christ in the gospel plot. Science now has a number of sources at its disposal that confirm the conclusions of the historical school. Thus, for a long time, the fragment about Jesus Christ contained in the “Antiquities” of Josephus (37-after 100) was considered a later interpolation. In the third chapter of the 18th book we will talk about the Roman procurator

Pontius Pilate and, by the way, the following is said: “At that time there lived Jesus, a wise man, if he can be called a man, for he was a miracle worker, a teacher of people who joyfully accepted the truth he proclaimed, and found many adherents among the Jews and Hellenes. It was Christ. Although, according to the denunciation of noble people of our people, Pilate ordered him to be crucified, his disciples, who loved him, remained faithful to him... Christians get their name from him, the sect of which has not ceased since then...” However, the Arabic text of “Antiquities” found in 1971 in Egypt, written by the Egyptian bishop Agapius in the 10th century, gives every reason to believe that Flavius ​​described one of the preachers known to him named Jesus, although Flavius’ description does not say the miracles performed by Christ and his resurrection are described not as a fact, but as one of many stories on this topic.

Representatives of both the mythological and historical schools made significant contributions to the publication of biblical texts, as well as other sources dating back to the first centuries of Christianity. IN last years most religious scholars share the opinion of representatives of the historical school

Spread of Christianity in the Roman Empire

Apart from Palestine and Syria, the new religion achieved the most impressive successes in the cities of Asia Minor, the Baltic Peninsula and Italy - independent communities of followers of Jesus Christ arose there, already separated from local synagogues. Almost the entire population of some Asia Minor provinces converted to Christianity.

Tradition, confirmed by the latest research, reports the successful preaching of the Apostle Peter in Asia Minor, and later in Egypt and Rome. His closest associate and continuator of the mission in Egypt was the holy Apostle and Evangelist Mark.

The work of his fellow apostles in Asia Minor was continued by St. John the Theologian. The center of his preaching was the city of Ephesus, from where he also led the life of Christian communities in the Asian cities of Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea.

Tradition also tells us about the preaching works of other apostles. Thus, Matthew, after preaching in Judea, Syria and Persia, ended his life as a martyr in Ethiopia. Apostles Bartholomew and Judas Thaddeus suffered martyrdom after preaching in Armenia. In the lands north of Asia Minor, the Apostle Andrew preached, who, according to legend, reached the Dnieper to the place where Kyiv later grew up.

According to legend, the Apostle Philip preached in Phrygia, Thomas - in India, Jacob Alfeev - in Syria and Egypt, St. Apostle Simon the Zealot - in the Caucasus, on the territory of present-day Abkhazia.

The spread of Christianity was continued by the closest disciples and successors of the apostles, who, even during the lifetime of their teachers, accompanied them on missionary journeys.

Despite persecution, Christianity spread quickly. After all, the Roman Empire, a cruel persecutor of Christians, united many peoples into one community, which greatly facilitated the preaching of the Gospel within the Greco-Roman world. The Mediterranean also favored the spread of Christianity. Already in the 2nd century. it was brought to Gaul by the disciples of Polycarp of Smyrna.

The teaching of Christ spread first in the east, among Jews and Greeks, in the countries of Greek speech. The Gospels were written in Greek. For the first hundred and fifty years there were few followers of Christianity in Rome and the western part of the empire. The Greeks accepted Christianity more quickly because they were softer in morals and more educated. Christian teaching did not differentiate between people based on their origin. The Apostle says that there is neither Greek nor Jew, neither free nor slave, but all are one in Christ.

Christians at first formed small friendly societies. Members of these societies gathered for prayer and general conversation, usually in the evening, in memory of the Last Supper of Christ. A fraternal meal took place, during which they received communion. Then they began to postpone communion to the morning following the meal.

The meals were prepared using general contributions; to their contribution, many added gifts for the benefit of the poor; they wanted to cleanse their souls through alms and charitable deeds. The poor were called “the precious treasures of the church.” Christians also considered the liberation of a slave a holy deed. “To ransom a slave means to save a soul.” The Christian bishop Cyprian taught: “You must see Christ in your captive brothers and redeem Him who ransomed us from death; you must snatch from the hands of the barbarians Him who snatched us from the devil.” Christians celebrated three days a week: Wednesday, Friday and Sunday, in memory of the captivity of Christ, His martyrdom and resurrection. On holidays, they did not decorate the doors and streets with flowers, did not dance in circles, and this was noticeable to those around them.

By the middle of the 1st century. In Christianity, many different directions clearly emerged, which were in heated debate with each other and with external ideological competitors. Early Christian communities did not know the dogma and cult of later Christianity. The communities did not have special places for worship, did not know the sacraments or icons. The only thing that was common to all communities and groups was the belief in a voluntary atoning sacrifice, made once and for all for the sins of all people by a mediator between God and man.

With the growth of Christian cosmopolitanism and the formation of basic dogmatic ideas, the process of moving away from Judaism and breaking with it intensified. By the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd century, especially after the defeat of the Jewish uprisings against Rome and the isolation of Judaism, this gap apparently took final shape.

The change in the social composition of communities also determined the evolution of their social orientation. There is an increasing departure from previous democratic trends, and the desire for an alliance with the imperial power is becoming more and more insistent.

The imperial power, in turn, felt an urgent need to complement the world empire with a world religion. Attempts to transform one of the national religions, in particular the Roman one, into such a religion were unsuccessful. A new religion was needed, understandable to all the peoples of the empire.

Among the Christians there were people of strict custom who considered it impossible to enter into any communication with the worshipers of the gods. They said that theater and games should be avoided, because this is the work of the devil, the pomp of idolatry. A Christian should not be a sculptor, because he will have to depict gods, and should not run schools, because he will have to explain the myths about the gods. He cannot be a soldier, because the banners are consecrated by unholy rites. You cannot hold any position, because otherwise you would have to make a sacrifice in front of the people, swear an oath in front of the statue of the emperor, etc.

When zealous Christians loudly refused to sacrifice, to bow before the image of the emperor, they were taken into custody and condemned to execution. Sometimes a crowd of people, under the impression of some misfortune, such as an earthquake, attacked Christians and beat them. The people were ready to see the cause of misfortune in the “godlessness” of Christians, in the fact that Christians, by denying the gods, brought wrath on everyone.

The former persecution of Christianity by the Roman state at the beginning of the 6th century. were replaced by active support for this new religion. Emperor Constantine (c. 285-337), with his edict of 324, marked the beginning of the transformation of Christianity into the state religion of the Roman Empire. A year later, in 325, under his chairmanship, the first ecumenical council of Christian churches met in Nicaea, which played an important role in establishing the Christian doctrine.

Already in the 2nd century. the great Christian writer St. Martyr Justin the Philosopher could note that “there is no longer a people in the world among whom they would not offer praise to the Father and Creator of all good things in the name of Jesus Christ.”

Rivals of Christianity.

One of Christianity's strongest rivals was Gnosticism. The main difference between these systems was that among the Gnostics, God is absolute in his perfection and that is why he is not a creator. The world is a world of evil, controlled by demons, therefore it was created not by God, but by a creator (demiurge), embodying Evil, sometimes, by the way, identified with the Jewish Yahweh. The advantage of the Gnostic teaching was that it did not receive strictly canonical formalization. That is why Gnostic ideas and movements could exist both within Judaism and within Christianity, feeding many sects with which Christians waged a long and fierce struggle for three centuries (from II-VI).

The victory of Christianity over Gnosticism was due to the fact that Gnosticism transferred protection from world evil mainly to the field of astrology, demonology, angelology and magic, while Christianity promised salvation through the atonement of sins by the sacrificial death of Christ and preached internal self-improvement based on faith. Since the main thing for the Gnostics was an intuitive knowledge of the truth, and not behavior in the real world, their ethical views were vague and their theories were unsteady, so the flourishing of Gnostic and semi-Gnostic teachings occurred in the first half of the 2nd century, when Christianity had not yet gained the necessary strength.

Another serious rival of Christianity was Mithraism - the Cult of the god Mithras.

Like Christianity, Mithraism addressed primarily the lower strata of the population, burdened with all sorts of hardships created by the Roman Empire. Like Gnosticism, Mithraism never had a written canon. At the head of the Mithraic system was Infinite Time, analogous to the god of the Gnostics. Good and evil principles fought in the world, Mithra was also a demiurge (creator), but unlike the demiurge of the Gnostics, he was good: he was a mediator between the divine forces of the universe and man, a protector of man and a role model in life. He promised the righteous posthumous bliss after the Last Judgment.

Mithraism was a religion that was much easier to adapt to the traditional polytheistic religions and social values ​​of the Roman Empire than Christianity, and yet the image of Jesus was clearer and more attractive than following the obviously mythological, supernatural Mithras. Therefore, Mithraism did not survive the 5th century, and the descendants of its adherents, like most Gnostics, joined Christian communities.

Smaller rivals to Christianity were such religious and mystical communities as the Orphics and Hermeticists. Moreover, they could not resist it - Orphism - because of its polytheism and extreme isolation, Hermeticism - because of its too abstract and partly magical character.

Bishops and their power

Two hundred years after the beginning of Christian preaching, there were many Christians in the West: they were in the courtyard and in the army, among rich people. Large sums of money were made up of various contributions in Christian communities. In the cities, Christians built large churches. The communities sent letters to each other and helped each other. To lead all these affairs, they chose bishops from among themselves. The bishop soon became the most respected and powerful person in the community. He managed large church property. People turned to him to resolve disputes and lawsuits instead of going to a judge. A Christian who went to another country with a testimony from a bishop received a warm welcome from his fellow believers: he was given shelter, his feet were washed, and he was seated in the first place at the table.

Some bishops in large or old cities, Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem, enjoyed special honor. The opinions of these patriarchs or popes were especially listened to. The bishop of Rome was of most importance, because Rome was considered the eternal city, the head of the world.

Christian communities had spread by 300 throughout all areas of the Roman Empire. The bishops sought to establish order in all communities, one teaching, one ritual. When a dispute arose between communities about how to understand the teaching, the bishops gathered together with the presbyters for meetings; at these synods they tried to establish agreement. Anyone who deviated in any way from the established order or teaching was considered a heretic, i.e. “schismatic”, “cutting off” himself from the common church. Heretics were excommunicated from the church, i.e. were declared deprived of salvation.

Emperor Constantine

By the time of Diocletian, Christians were a major force in the empire. In some places the old gods and their altars were abandoned. Emperors and their governors saw how great the power of bishops was. It seemed to them that the church was distracting both people and wealth from serving the empire. Even 50 years before Diocletian, strict decrees were issued against Christians; their meetings were prohibited, they were threatened with confiscation of their property. Under Emperor Valerian, presbyters and bishops, around whom believers crowded, were severely persecuted: exile or execution awaited them. Many years have passed since then, during which Christians could live in peace.

Towards the end of Diocletian's reign, these decrees were renewed, and even more severe measures were added to them. At first they threatened to exclude from among the troops and officials all who refused to make a sacrifice to the genius of the emperor. Diocletian then ordered that the books of Christians be burned and their churches and houses of worship destroyed.

The persecution of Christians was unsuccessful. Although some wavered and handed over the books, the majority remained firm; preachers spoke and loudly proclaimed their faith. Christians clung even more tightly to the suffering bishops and listened more closely to their words. Diocletian renounced the power of the emperor during persecution.

The son of his fellow ruler, Constantine (311-337), also an Illyrian by birth, who ruled the westernmost fourth part of the empire, first reconciled with the Christians, then went over to their side. Ten years after Diocletian's persecution, Constantine, by decree in Milan, allowed Christians to freely profess their faith. The victims received their property back.

Constantine then began to give an advantage to the Christians. In his army, Constantine introduced a new cruciform banner: at the top of it were depicted the initial letters of the name of Christ; There was an inscription on it: “This way you will win.” It was allowed to depict a cross on imperial coins. Constantine began to especially bring bishops closer to him. He allowed them to participate in court, to resolve litigation; allowed slaves to be freed in churches. Constantine freed the clergy from taxes and the heavy duty of delivering grain to the treasury. He invited bishops to his table and generously gave gifts to churches. Bishops became the main pillar of his administration. Konstantin raised his children in Christianity.

ORTHODOXY

The word “Orthodoxy” is a translation, a tracing paper, of the Greek word “orthodoxy.” Orthodoxy, thus, in the literal sense of the word, is, in contrast to false, correct (right) doctrine. It is in this meaning that this word has been used since the era of the Ecumenical Councils (IV-VIII centuries), when representatives of all churches, protecting Christian teaching from ideas (religious and philosophical) and doctrines that distorted it, formulated the position of the original faith. These formulations expressed Orthodox teaching, and the churches that contained it were also Orthodox.

In the 11th century The Roman Catholic Church unilaterally included in the general church confession of faith (“Creed”) a fundamentally new statement about the Holy Trinity (the so-called “Filioque”), which was one of the reasons for the “Great Schism.” From that time on, the Eastern churches began to be called Orthodox, and all Western dioceses (regions) subordinate to Rome ended up in the Roman Catholic or simply Catholic Church.

Currently, there are 15 Autocephalous (i.e., independent) churches, including the Russian one, containing the Orthodox faith common to all of them.

What are the features of this faith that distinguishes it from numerous V current Christian denominations (confessions)?

Sacred Tradition

Although all Christian confessions are based on the Bible, the understanding of it and Christian teaching in general is different among Christians of different branches. The criterion for the correct understanding of the Holy Scriptures for Catholics is ultimately the word of the pope; for Protestants - the conviction of the founder of a given denomination, this or that theology, and even the personal opinion of the believer himself; for the Orthodox, the only reliable criterion is the so-called Holy -Puppy Tradition. The essence of this criterion is that only tradition or legend can be an indisputable guarantor in the understanding of the Bible, and therefore the truth of faith. Sacred Tradition allowed Orthodoxy to remain faithful to original Christianity.

Sobornost

A distinctive feature of Orthodoxy is its doctrine of the catholicity of the Church. Sobornost is the Slavic equivalent of the Greek term “catholicity,” generally accepted in various Christian confessions. In the Orthodox understanding, conciliarity means a certain organic unity of the Church (i.e., all local churches and all believers taken together), in which any local church (or individual believer), unilaterally introducing something fundamentally new for Christian teaching, thereby excluding himself from church unity and taking the path of schism. The main theme of Orthodoxy: in the main thing - unity, in the secondary - freedom, in everything - love.

The rescue

The main idea of ​​the Christian religion is the salvation of man from what gives rise to misfortune, suffering, illness, war, death, and all the evil in the world. Christianity calls sin the generating cause of evil, i.e. an act of a person directed against conscience, God, against the moral law, which constitutes exclusively the dignity and beauty of man among the world of living beings. Sin disfigures a person, destroying the nature of the soul internally and often externally, as a result of which all human activities acquire an abnormal character.

“Christianity claims that salvation is revealed by Jesus Christ, who, being the Son of God, became incarnate and became Man, through voluntary suffering on the Cross, killing the sinfulness of human nature and resurrecting it for eternal life. Salvation lies in faith in him. This general Christian position is interpreted differently in different Christian confessions: Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Lutheranism, Reformation, etc. The differences relate to the following three main provisions in the doctrine of salvation: atonement or the meaning of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ on the cross; the Kingdom of God as the goal of human salvation; spiritual life as a condition for human salvation.

Redemption.

In its teaching about salvation, Orthodoxy proceeds from the understanding: “God exists. Love"

Orthodoxy does not share the dominant legal concept of atonement in Catholicism and Protestantism, which states that Christ’s sacrifice was conditioned by the need to satisfy God’s justice for the sin of Adam and his descendants, who, having violated God’s law, offended Him and thereby earned themselves eternal punishment. Christ took upon Himself this punishment, thus redeeming (i.e. redeeming) humanity from the righteous wrath of God the Father.

Kingdom of God.

Western Christianity is characterized by an understanding of the ultimate goal of the life of a believer - the Kingdom of God as a place where a Christian, redeemed by Christ from punishment for his sins, will receive from God after the general resurrection the opportunity of endless bliss. Orthodoxy does not share this understanding. From the Orthodox point of view, jurisprudence in the understanding of the Kingdom of God distorts the essence of Christianity, which calls a person to spiritual perfection, likeness to God and not to seek pleasure, even if it is spiritual.

By the Kingdom of God (otherwise, salvation), Orthodoxy understands the state of the soul, cleansed from all evil and acquiring the properties indicated in the Gospel, and not the external justification of a person at the judgment of God, not a reward (payment) for good deeds.

Spiritual life.

Spiritual life in Orthodoxy is understood as a life like God, for “God is spirit, and those who worship Him must worship in spirit and truth.” According to the New Testament Revelation, the most essential property of God is love, which also constitutes the entire essence of spiritual life. The Apostle Paul emphasizes the paramount importance of love in the following wonderful words, known as the “hymn of love”: “If I speak in the tongues of men and of angels, but do not have love, then I am a sounding brass, or a sounding cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy, and know all mysteries, and have all knowledge and all faith, so that Can and move mountains, not... I have love, then I am nothing. And if I give away everything that is named and give my body to be burned, but do not have love, I have no volume no benefit."

The main property of true love is selfless sacrifice. True love is incompatible with hatred of any one person. The one who loves rejoices, the one who hates suffers. This is the essence of Jesus Christ’s call to love your enemies. Life without love loses both joy and meaning - this is a fairly well-known truth. But how to make love a permanent property of the soul, independent of any living conditions, is the main question for every person.

Orthodoxy points out the need to avoid the illusion of love, “selfishness in disguise,” when love for another is nothing more than a search for one’s own satisfaction and pleasure. Such pseudo-love develops egoism in a person, destroying and crippling the personality, making it ultimately incapable of true love and, therefore, of what is called happiness.

Asceticism

In Orthodoxy, special, exclusive attention is paid to the acquisition of humility - a property that is opposed to pride, the basis and source of selfishness and all human passions. Pride alienates a person from all others, makes him asocial, deprives him of love, i.e. God. A person cannot live without love, without spiritual communication with others, and therefore pride, like a prison wall, locking a person in itself, inevitably kills him. The danger of pride is very great for an ascetic. His spiritual life is always associated with experiences of deep joy, with the development of completely new abilities and the discovery of enormous powers hidden from the average person. If the ascetic does not set all this as the goal of his life, if he does not get carried away, is not seduced, does not “fall,” but in humility continues his feat of selfless striving for the Truth, he reaches the state of extreme godlikeness and becomes the lamp of his land, of his people.

Orthodox church calendar

The Orthodox church calendar is complex in composition. It differs from the secular calendar in three main features.

Firstly, the church lives according to the Julian calendar (named after Emperor Julius Caesar), i.e. to what was in effect during the times of early Christianity. Nowadays, the Gregorian calendar (named after Pope Gregory XIII, who carried out the calendar reform in 1582) is widespread in the world, which corrected the lag of more than 11 minutes in the calculation of time in the Julian calendar. This is the lag that existed in the 16th century. 10 days, in the 20th century. was already 13 days. Therefore, holidays and the memory of saints in the Church are designated by other days and often by another month than is generally accepted. So, St. St. George the Victorious is celebrated in the old way, i.e. according to the church calendar, April 23, which corresponds to May 6 according to the new style. The Nativity of Christ, celebrated according to the old style on December 25, falls on January 7 of the generally accepted calendar.

Secondly, the year of the church calendar begins not on January 1, from the middle of winter, but from September 1 (old style, September 14 new), from the beginning of autumn. On this day, the Church traditionally marks the beginning of a “new summer” (year). The entire circle of annual holidays begins in September, with the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, and ends in August. Dormition of the Mother of God.

Thirdly, among the most significant. 12 holidays, called twelve (from the ancient Slavic name for the number 12 - twelve), along with those that have exact dates, there are some of the most revered, which are movable. Distant by a certain, constant number of days from Easter, they change their dates annually.

Yearly holiday circle

The most important holiday of the year, “the feast of holidays and the triumph of triumphs,” is Easter, or the Resurrection of Jesus Christ, when Christians celebrate his victory over death, which is the key to the eternal blissful life (immortality of the soul) of a person. Easter is celebrated in the spring, in April or May, on different days. It is preceded by a long, 40-day period of Lent (the Fourth Day), ending with Holy Week (a seven-day week), when believers remember the suffering of Christ on the cross, his death and burial. A week before Easter, on Sunday, which in Rus' is called Palm, the Entry of the Lord into Jerusalem is celebrated, when the Savior, according to the testimony of all the evangelists, entered this city on the eve of suffering and death on the cross.

On the fortieth day after the Resurrection of Christ is celebrated Ascension of the Lord - the day when, according to the writings of the evangelists, he ascended to heaven. The holiday begins on the fiftieth day after Easter Pentecost. The day of the descent of the holy spirit on the apostles, or Trinity. In Rus', the holiday of the Trinity coincides with the completion of field work and is celebrated by “curling the birch tree” - decorating temples and dwellings with greenery and flowers. The Saturday before Trinity is known as parent's Saturday, when deceased relatives are remembered. On the first Sunday after Trinity, the Orthodox Church celebrates the holiday All saints after which Peter's Fast begins on Monday. It has different durations in different years, until the day of Peter and Paul on July 12th. On the second Sunday after Trinity, the Feast of All Russian Saints is celebrated.

In addition to transitional holidays, which are not fixed by exact numbers and depend on the date of Easter, the remaining twelve holidays are celebrated on constant days. These include:

Nativity(January 7 of the new style) with five days before the holiday and six days after the holiday. This is the biggest winter holiday; in Rus' it coincides with Christmastide, when traditional carols were sung, fortune telling and games were held. Christians celebrate Christmas with charitable deeds to help the sick, old and orphans, decorate Christmas trees in homes and squares, organize a holiday for children, and make gifts for relatives and those in need. Christmas Eve, Christmas Eve, is the day of preparation for Christmas. The holiday is preceded by the Nativity Fast (from November 28), lasting 40 days and also including Christmas Eve.

Epiphany(January 19 new style), or Epiphany. On the day of Baptism, the consecration of water is carried out, used by believers “for every good benefit.”

Presentation of the Lord(February 15, new style) is celebrated by the Church on the fortieth day after Christmas as the meeting (Old Slavonic “meeting”) of the baby Jesus in the Jerusalem Temple with the elder Simeon, who recognized him as the Messiah - the Savior of the world.

Annunciation The Most Holy Theotokos (April 7, new style) recalls how, according to the Gospel of the Apostle Luke, the Archangel Gabriel, coming to Nazareth to the Virgin Mary, informed her that the Holy Spirit had descended on her and she would give birth to the Savior Jesus.

Transfiguration of the Lord, Savior(August 19 new style). This is the memory of the Gospel event, when, shortly before the suffering of the cross, Christ on Mount Tabor in Palestine during prayer was illuminated by a miraculous light and was transformed when the voice of God the Father was heard. This was supposed to testify to the divinity of Jesus. On this day the consecration of the first fruits takes place.

Dormition The Most Holy Theotokos (August 28, new style) is celebrated as the day of remembrance of the Mother of God, who died in Jerusalem and was buried in Gethsemane. The Church glorifies the Mother of God as the ideal of humility and purity. Before the Assumption, from August 14, two weeks of the Assumption Fast were established.

Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary(September 21) - one of the feasts of the Mother of God, born of Joachim and the barren and elderly Anna.

Exaltation of the Cross of the Lord (September 27, new style). On this day, Christians commemorate the Cross on which Christ was crucified, as a symbol of the throne where the sacrifice was made to atone for the sins of people.

Introduction to the Temple of the Most Holy Theotokos (December 4, new style) marks, as it were, a second spiritual birth, when she was given to be raised in the Old Testament temple of God and to be prepared to become the mother of the Savior of the world.

Orthodox churches in the modern world

Unlike adherents of Catholicism, who belong to one church, the Roman Church, headed by one high priest - the Pope of Rome, Orthodox churches preserve the early Christian traditions of polycentrism, i.e. belong to several churches. In modern conditions, in countries where there are a large number of adherents of Orthodoxy, churches sometimes have a national character or, while preserving historical traditions, are supranational.

The oldest independent churches are the Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem churches, headed by patriarchs.

The most numerous among the Orthodox churches is the Russian Orthodox Church, headed by the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus', also uniting the Ukrainian and Belarusian Orthodox churches. The Russian Orthodox Church includes believers of many nationalities in our country and abroad, in particular in Western Europe, America, Japan (Autonomous Church of Japan), etc.

The Romanian, Bulgarian, Serbian churches, headed by patriarchs, are also autocephalous. Georgian Church with a Catholic Patriarch at its head, Greek (Helladic), Polish; Czechoslovak and other Orthodox churches, headed by metropolitans and archbishops. There is also a separate Russian Orthodox Church Abroad, established in Sremski Karlovci (Yugoslavia), now headed by a metropolitan.

Russian Orthodox Church in the 20th century.

By the beginning of the 20th century. The Orthodox Church was the most numerous religious organization in Russia: Orthodox Christians made up about 70% of the population. The words “Russian” and “Orthodox” were often used interchangeably.

CATHOLICISM

In the modern world, the Roman Catholic Church has more than 900 million followers, which far exceeds the number of followers of other branches of Christianity. The Latin tradition of Western Christianity is known as the Catholic (from Greek - universal) church, but it is more accurate to use the term Roman Catholic Church. The head of this church is the Pope - this has been the case since the 3rd - 4th centuries. Bishops of Rome began to call themselves. From the 6th century this term was assigned to the head of the Christian community of the “eternal city,” Rome, the capital of a huge empire. The Roman bishops, calling themselves “vicars of God on earth,” placed themselves in a privileged position, claiming honorary (according to legend, the Church of Rome was founded by the apostles Peter and Paul) and legal (as the church of the capital of the empire) primacy among all Christian churches.

The term “Latin” emphasizes that the use of Latin as the official language of the Western Roman Empire determined the connection of the history of this Christian tradition with the history of the peoples and states of Western Europe. The Latin tradition of Western Christianity can be traced back to approximately the 4th century.

The Christianized peoples of the empire became Roman citizens and recognized the special position of the Church of Rome. Europe west of the Scandinavia-Carpathians-Danube line was turning into an integral Christian community, bound by a common Latin language and recognition of the supremacy of the papal throne. This Western European community in the Middle Ages perceived itself as a “Christian kingdom.”

The formation of the Latin tradition went simultaneously with the processes of division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern and the decline of imperial power in the West. In the previously united Christianity, from the 4th - 5th centuries, as we have already said, two directions began to separate: Western (Latin) and Eastern (Greek Orthodox). The formal division occurred in 1054, when Pope Leo IX and the Byzantine patriarch Michael Cerularius, who refused to recognize Rome's claim to supremacy over the Greek Church, anathematized each other.

From V - VI centuries. The role of the Roman high priests began to strengthen: their economic and political power increased. First in Italy, and then far beyond its borders, the jurisdiction of the Papal Ecclesiastical Region expanded. Trying to assert its supremacy not only over church hierarchies, but also over secular feudal rulers, the papacy painstakingly created its Latin Roman Catholic spiritual-secular empire. The tactics of allying with the winner and proselytizing the conquerors brought success to the papacy during the Middle Ages: evangelization of the Normans, “acts of God through the Franks,” alliance with the German emperors, the Crusades, the Reconquista and the Conquest. In medieval Western Europe, the Roman Catholic Church became the support of the entire feudal system. Skillfully using the threat of excommunication and securing its spiritual and secular privileges with the legal norms of Latin canon law and papal bulls, the papacy tried to unite a fragmented Europe mired in 6 internecine wars into a single theocratic monarchy under the rule of the pope.

The peoples of Western Europe converted to Christianity in masses, as a whole community at once, which is why the Roman Catholic Church developed as the church of an entire people, an entire state entity. Accordingly, the jurisdiction of the national empire extended to the entire population without exception. Until the 16th century this was a mandatory norm, and only after the Reformation was it possible to achieve legal sanction for the possibility of different religions of the population of one European country. The arrogant uniformitarianism of Latin Christianity and the persecution of other believers and dissenters it generated were inherited by many Protestant churches. Therefore, the reformers themselves often called Luther and Calvin the popes of Wittenberg and Geneva, respectively,

Latin, the official language of law, religion and education, played a huge role in the formation of a single cultural fiefdom of the peoples of Western Europe. Long after Latin had lost its function as a spoken language, its meaning and role in the church, court and university remained. a religion with a “special” language contributed to the concentration of power and might in the hands of a special religious class - the Catholic clergy, which placed itself in a privileged position in relation to all other believers.

The medieval idea that the European “Christian kingdom” with its capital in Rome could be expanded through secular expansion to the limits of the entire “known world”, received real embodiment in the 15th - 16th centuries. along with the exploration of the Atlantic and the beginning of European colonial expansion. This allowed the Roman Catholic Church to compensate in the New World for the losses that the Reformation had caused it on the European continent.

The split in the Latin tradition of Western Christianity led to the victory of the reformers and the creation in the 16th century. northern, or Protestant, tradition of Western Christianity. From this time on, churches of the Latin tradition concentrated in the south of Western Europe. Crusades under sails dominated the sea in the 16th century. Portugal and Spain allowed the establishment of churches of the Latin tradition not only in Central and South (Latin) America, but also in many areas of the African coast and certain regions of Asia.

Missionary activity and colonial expansion” XIX – XX centuries. contributed to an even wider geographical spread of the Roman Catholic Church. Immigration from Ireland, Italy and other European countries with a Latin tradition of Christianity led to the formation of Latin Christian enclaves in North America, Australia and other regions with a dominant Protestant influence.

In the 19th century the activities of the Roman Catholic Church became significantly politicized, which was associated with colonial expansion, the formation political parties and the development of labor and socialist movements in European countries. At the First Vatican Council 1869-1870. Pope Pius IX, who several years earlier published the “Syllabus, or Complete Enumeration of the Main Errors of Our Time,” sought, on the one hand, to raise the authority of the pope and Catholic teaching in matters of religion, politics and ideology, and on the other - determine the position of the church in relation to new scientific, social and political trends and ideas. The Council condemned these teachings (rationalism, pantheism, socialism, etc.) and the democratic demands of social movements (freedom of speech, press, etc.), and also adopted a decree on the infallibility of the Pope (vicar of “Christ” ), when he speaks officially on issues of faith and morals. The last decision led to the departure of some Catholics from the church and the formation of an independent Old Catholic Church. These small churches operate today in several Western European countries and the United States.

The rapid quantitative growth of the Catholic Churches in Latin America and Africa led to the Vatican developing a new political strategy aimed at strengthening its positions in former colonial and dependent countries. The Latin tradition of Western Christianity entered a period of qualitative change.

The Roman Catholic Church has accumulated vast experience in propaganda work. Today, under the control of Catholics, there are numerous printing houses and publishing houses, radio stations and television companies, international and parish newspapers and magazines, general and special religious literature are published. Much has been written about the Vatican's financial empire.

Active religious and secular Catholic organizations provide the Church with the opportunity to work with believers of all ages. The Roman Catholic Church has a strong position at all levels of education. A privileged position in the field of higher education is occupied by prestigious educational establishments, especially the Jesuit order. Various forms of charitable activities are well organized and structured. Extensive work is being done in the field of health care: health education, servicing hospitals, nursing homes and leper colonies.

The Roman Catholic Church gives priority to tradition, i.e. Along with the Bible, the works of the Fathers of the Church and the decisions of the first Ecumenical Councils, it raises to the level of indisputable authority for believers the official documents prepared by the pope and the highest bodies of the central church government. The Roman Catholic Church did not recommend (until Vatican II) that believers study the Bible independently, insisting on reading in the presence of a clergyman who gives the official interpretation. Only in the hierarchy of Latin Christianity are there cardinals. The sacrament of confirmation (from Latin - anointing) is performed at the age of 7 - 13 years. The Eucharist is celebrated not on leavened bread (as with the Orthodox), but on unleavened bread (wafer). The sign of the cross is not performed from right to left, as with the Orthodox, but from left to right.

Uniate churches are adjacent to the Roman Catholic Church, i.e. national Christian churches that signed a union (from Latin - union) with the Vatican. Uniate churches accept the doctrine and leadership of the Roman Catholic Church, but retain national characteristics in worship and ritual practice. Uniate churches adhere to various rites: Greek, Chaldean, Armenian, Maronite, Syrian and Coptic.

PROTESTANTISM

Protestantism is one of the three main directions of Christianity, which arose in Northern Europe at the beginning of the 16th century. during the Reformation. In 1529, a group of heads of small state entities (mainly German states) and representatives of free cities who participated in the work of the Imperial Diet in Speyer, where the majority of delegates were Catholics, issued an official protest against the Diet, aimed at suppression of movements for the reform of the Roman Catholic Church.

Chronologically, the reform movement that swept Western Europe coincided with the crisis of the feudal system and the early bourgeois revolutions. Anti-feudal actions of the broad masses and movements of the emerging bourgeoisie acquired religious overtones. It is almost impossible to separate religious demands from socio-economic and political demands: everything was closely intertwined in terms of religion. The Reformation led to the deepest crisis in the history of the Roman Catholic Church; a significant part of Western Christianity broke away from the Latin tradition believers who formed a new, Protestant, or northern, tradition of Western Christianity.

The term “northern tradition” is introduced because this direction of Christianity is characteristic primarily of the peoples of Northern Europe and North America, although practically today Protestant churches are spread throughout the world. The term “Protestant” is not a special term, and the participants in the Reformation themselves more often called themselves reformers or evangelists.

The Reformation, which caused a split in Western Christianity, ended with the refusal to recognize the supremacy of the Pope and the use of Latin as the only officially permitted language for religious communication. If the distinctive feature of Catholicism is a strictly centralized hierarchical church, then the uniqueness of Protestantism lies in the existence of many different independent Christian movements, churches, communities and sects, autonomous in their religious life. This does not preclude their unification at the national or international level under the principle of a common goal or one denomination. Explain this plurality, to a certain extent, can be helped by the thesis of one of the fathers of the Reformation, Martin Luther, who, defending his positions, argued: “I stand on this and cannot do otherwise.” Recognition of the Holy Scripture as the only source of doctrine could not but lead to subjectivity in its interpretations.

The northern, or Protestant, tradition of Western Christianity is a national, local, local tradition. Among the leaders of the early Reformation of the 16th century. The central place is occupied by the Catholic priest, professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg, Martin Luther (1483 - 1543), who in 1517. published 95 theses justifying the need for reforms in the Roman Catholic Church. From criticizing the sale of indulgences practiced by the church, Luther moved on to criticizing the foundations of Catholic doctrine and the papacy and setting out the principles on which the reformed Christian church should be built. In response to accusations of heresy, Luther publicly burned the papal bull excommunicating him from the church. He became the leader of the religious opposition in Germany. The ideologist and leader of the Swiss reformers of the early period was the priest W. Zwingli (1484 - 1531), who presented his theses on the principles of reform of the Roman Catholic Church. Zwingli belonged to the more radical wing of the Reformation, consistently implementing in the church he led the principle of self-government, election and removal of clergy at a general meeting of all members of the community.

An even more radical leader of the peasant-plebeian movement of the Reformation was Thomas Münzer (1490 - 1525), executed after the defeat of the militia he led during the Peasant War in Germany.

Mass popular movements of the radical Reformation - plebeian Anabaptism - denied the church hierarchy, demanded individual freedom and an end to state interference in the life of the church. Anabaptists (“rebaptists”) demanded a second, conscious baptism in adulthood.

The Anglican Church is closest to other Protestant churches, both in organizational structure and doctrine, to the Roman Catholic Church. Having emerged in England during the Reformation (under King Henry VIII, who was declared the head of the church), this church retained Catholic rituals and spiritual hierarchy. Its doctrine combines the Catholic teaching about the saving power of the church with the Protestant teaching about salvation by personal faith. In the cult practice of the Anglican Church, many elements of the Latin tradition of Christianity are preserved. The foundations of Anglican dogma and ritual are contained in the Book of Common Prayer, an official collection of prayers and liturgical instructions adopted in 1549.

The Anglican Church is a state church; its head, the English monarch (king or queen), appoints bishops on the recommendation of a commission; The primate (from Latin - primacy) of the church is the Archbishop of Canterbury. Since independent Anglican churches operate in 16 countries, in order to give inter-church contacts a permanent character, Lambeth Conferences are held in London once every 10 years, in which Anglican bishops participate.

In general, the formation of the northern tradition of Western Christianity, with all the diversity of its local forms, took place on the basis of new religious principles common to all. They boil down to the following.

1 The only and exclusive source of doctrine is the Holy Scripture. The Bible must be translated into local languages. Independent reading and interpretation of the Bible is the responsibility of every believer. The authority of Tradition in matters of faith is denied.

2. Divine grace is possessed not only by the clergy (through episcopal ordination), but also by all believers, every person who believes in the atoning sacrifice of Christ. This eliminated the boundary between the laity and the clergy, and the very need for a hierarchy disappeared.

3. Salvation is achieved not by good deeds, but only and exclusively by personal faith in God.

4. Only two sacraments are recognized: baptism and communion; they have a predominantly symbolic meaning. Among Lutherans, marriage, ordination, unction, and confirmation are considered simple rites. Most Protestant churches do not recognize the worship of saints, the veneration of relics, icons, sculptural images of saints, or even the cross.

5. The cult, rituals and appearance of the church are becoming cheaper and simpler. Elements of pomp and luxury in worship, church decoration (removal of icons, statues, relics, altar, etc.), and in the clothing of clergy are rejected. Worship comes down to the pastor's sermon, congregational prayer, and congregational singing of psalms; it is conducted in local languages.

6. Celibacy (from Latin - celibacy) of the clergy is rejected. Monasticism is declared unnecessary and useless - monasteries should be closed and prohibited.

7. Denial of the hierarchical structure of the church and the supreme power of the Pope that is common to all. The democratic structure of the church is built from the bottom up on the foundation of a general meeting of all church members, where everyone can take part in the discussion of both material and theological issues. Communities, or congregations, of believers are autonomous in decision-making and activities; they are governed by consistories elected by the general meeting for a certain period of time (pastor, deacon and elders (presbyters) from among the laity). Provincial consistories send delegates to the regularly convened provincial synod. The next level is the national synod, etc.

The principles underlying the Protestant tradition contributed to the active development by Protestant theologians of issues related to such concepts as “revelation,” “faith,” and “psychology of faith.” In the Age of Enlightenment, Protestant theology influenced the emergence and development of rationalism.

Many Protestant churches are actively involved in the movement for the unification of all Christian denominations. This movement is called ecumenical (Greek “ecumene” - world, Universe) and has as its goal the restoration of Christian unity lost during the Middle Ages.

SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.

Foreign Europe.

The Christian religion penetrated into Europe soon after its inception. However, at first the influence of this religion was small, and its spread was limited to the Mediterranean regions. Christianity penetrated into Central European countries somewhat later, and into the north and east of Europe only in the 7th-12th centuries.

With the division of Christianity in the 11th century. to the western and eastern branches, the countries of South-Western, Western, Central and Northern Europe followed Rome, the East and South-East followed Constantinople. The Reformation movement that unfolded in Europe in the first half of the 16th century further complicated the religious picture in this part of the world: along with Catholics and Orthodox Christians, Protestants also appeared. Protestantism established itself in several areas of Central and Western Europe, as well as throughout the north.

Since then, the geography of various religious movements in Europe has not undergone significant changes. Protestantism still prevails among believers in Northern European countries (Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Iceland), as well as in certain countries of Western and Central Europe (Great Britain, Northern Ireland, in the eastern part of Germany). In Western and Central European countries such as the Netherlands, the western part of Germany, and Switzerland, approximately half of the believers profess Protestantism in various forms.

In the countries of South-Western Europe (Italy, Spain, Portugal, Malta), as well as in some countries of Western (Ireland, France, Belgium, Luxembourg), Central (Austria) and Eastern Europe (Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary) the majority of believers are Catholics.

Orthodoxy predominates among believers in South-Eastern Europe (Romania, Bulgaria, Greece), as well as Russia. In Yugoslavia, in addition to the Orthodox, there are many Catholics.

Finland.

Christianity entered Finland in the 12th century. During the Reformation era, Lutheranism spread in this country, professed by 90.5% of the population. Most Lutherans are members of the Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Church. There are also followers of the Swedish Lutheran Church. The second most followed church organization in the country is the Finnish Orthodox Church.

Sweden.

In Sweden, Christianity was introduced in the 9th century. Since the Reformation, Lutheranism has completely dominated the country (Lutherans make up approximately 95% of the population). Despite the proclamation of freedom of religion, the Lutheran Church in Sweden has been given a state character.

Norway

Norway Was converted to Christianity in the 9th century. From the 16th century The Lutheran Norwegian Church, which is considered the state church, reigns supreme in the country (according to official data, 94% of the population belongs to this church). In 1877, the Evangelical Lutheran Free Church in Norway branched off from the state church, but the number of its followers is small. Even smaller is the independent Evangelical Lutheran church congregation. Other Protestant church organizations and sects also have a relatively small number of members; there are only 15 thousand Catholics.

Denmark

Quite early, at the very beginning of the 8th century, Christianity established itself in Denmark. After the Reformation, Lutheranism became the official religion of the country. 94% of the country's population belongs to the state Evangelical Lutheran People's Church of Denmark (interestingly, only 3% population). Catholicism is professed by 28 thousand people. There are also a small number of Orthodox Christians and Muslims (among the immigrants).

Iceland

The Christianization of the population in this country occurred at the beginning of the 11th century. After the Reformation, most believers became Lutherans. The Evangelical Lutheran Church is in the state position in the country. It includes 97% of Iceland's population. Most of the remaining believers are followers of two independent Protestant groups: the Free Church and the Independent Congregation of the Free Church.

Great Britain

Already in the 3rd century, i.e. even before the invasion of the Anglo-Saxons, Britain was a Christian country. In the first half of the 16th century. The Church of England declared itself independent from Rome. Nevertheless, some believers remained faithful to Catholicism. At different times, many different church groups and sects separated from the Anglican Church. In Scotland, during the Reformation, Calvinism (in the form of Presbyterianism) was established, which became the main religion of the country.

Currently, there are two state churches in Great Britain: the Church of England (Anglican) and the Church of Scotland (Presbyterian). The Church of England currently has 27 million followers (not counting the Anglicans in Wales, where the Anglican Church is not a state church). The Church of Scotland has 953,000 adult members. In addition to state churches, there are also so-called free churches in Great Britain. Methodist church organizations have the largest number of followers.

There are quite a large number of Catholics living in Great Britain. There are more than 5 million of them in the United Kingdom. Over half of Catholics are Irish. The most significant Catholic groups are (apart from Northern Ireland) in Glasgow, Cardiff, Liverpool, Birmingham and London. There are also small groups of Orthodox Christians (mostly from Eastern European countries) and Armenian Gregorians (Armenians).

The Isle of Man, a self-governing possession of Great Britain, has a predominantly Anglican population. At the same time, adherents of other Protestant churches and sects are found on the island.

On the island of Jersey (one of the Channel Islands, a self-governing possession of Great Britain) the Church of England is the state. There are representatives of other Protestant movements on the island (Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians) and Catholics. The Church of England is also the state for the population of the island of Guernsey - the second of the Channel Islands, also a self-governing possession of Great Britain. In addition to the Anglicans, Presbyterians, Methodists, Congregationalists, Baptists, members of the Elim Church, and also Catholics live on the island.

Ireland

Ireland adopted Christianity in the 5th century. It has always been considered one of the bastions of Catholicism. Roman Catholics make up 94% of the country's total population. Of the Protestants, the most numerous are Anglicans (98 thousand), followed by Presbyterians (16 thousand) and Methodists (6 thousand).

France

Christianity penetrated into France at the beginning of the new era. It is generally believed that the vast majority of the country's population (about 90%) adheres to Catholicism

There are more than 800 thousand Protestants in France. Most of them are Reformed. They are united in three churches: the Reformed Church of France (400 thousand), the Reformed Church of Alsace and Lorraine (42 thousand) and the Independent Evangelical Reformed Church (10 thousand). Lutherans in France form two churches: the Church of the Augsburg Confession of Alsace and Lorraine (230 thousand) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of France (45 thousand). Reformed people are most numerous in Paris, Normandy and near Marseille, Lutherans are found in Alsace and Lotharingia. Other Protestant groups are small.

There are also Armenian Gregorians (180 thousand), Orthodox Christians (150 thousand, mostly Russians and Greeks), Mormons (15 thousand), and Old Catholics (3 thousand) in the country.

Monaco

In the small principality of Monaco, located on the Mediterranean coast, 90% of the population adheres to Catholicism. There are also Anglicans and other Protestants.

Netherlands

In the territory of modern Netherlands, Christianity began to spread from the end of the 7th century. After the Reformation, most of the population converted to Protestantism, but Catholicism remained in the south.

Protestants make up 34% of the population in the Netherlands, Catholics - 40%. Catholics are especially numerous in the south of the country, where in the provinces of North Brabant and Limburg they make up 90-95% of the population. There are also many of them in the provinces of North Holland, Overijssel and Gelderland. Protestants are divided into a number of churches and sects. The Reformed churches have the greatest influence. The most important of them is the Netherlands Reformed Church. The majority of reformers in the country belong to it.

Belgium

The Christianization of Belgium took place from the end of the 7th century. Currently, the overwhelming majority of believers in the country are Catholics (approximately 90% of the total population). The number of Protestants is small. The country has the United Protestant Church of Belgium (created in 1978 as a result of the unification of the Lutheran Protestant Church of Belgium, the Reformed Church of Belgium and the Belgian district of Reformed Churches in the Netherlands).

Among the foreigners living in Belgium there are 20 thousand Orthodox Christians.

Luxembourg

The majority of Luxembourg's population is Catholic (96%). There are few Protestants, mainly Lutherans (4 thousand, or 1% of the population). During the census, some residents of Luxembourg either declared themselves atheists or refused to indicate their religious affiliation.

Germany

West Germany

Christianity penetrated into the territory where West Germany is currently located in the 4th century. The Reformation split German Christians into two groups: some of them remained adherents of the Roman Catholic Church, others adopted Protestantism in the Lutheran or Calvinist form. Back in the 19th century. An attempt was made to unite the Lutheran and Reformed churches in individual German states (while maintaining the religious characteristics of each church community included in the association). United churches began to be called evangelical. After the formation of a unified German state, the Evangelical Church of the Union was created, but not all local evangelical (Lutheran-Reformed) organizations were included in its composition. In 1948 an even wider association was created - the Evangelical Church in Germany, which included the already mentioned Evangelical Church of the Union, the United Evangelical Lutheran Church of Germany, created in 1948, and a number of independent territorial Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed churches .

The Roman Catholic Church also enjoys great influence. 46% of the country's population is adjacent to it. Catholicism occupies a particularly strong position in the west and south of the country - in the states of Saarland (74% of the population), Bavaria (70%), Rhineland-Palatinate (56%) and North Rhine-Westphalia (52%). There are also small groups of Orthodox Christians in Germany.

East Germany

In East Germany, unlike West Germany, Catholicism does not play a significant role (8% of the population adheres to it). Among Protestants, Lutherans predominate, but there are also quite a few reformers. There are also small groups of Old Catholics and Orthodox Christians in the country, as well as about 5 thousand Jews. A significant part of the population of East Germany does not profess any religion.

Protestantism predominates in Berlin (70% of the population). There are Catholics (12%) and Jews (5 thousand) in the city.

Switzerland

In Switzerland, the Reformation appeared in a peculiar form of Calvinism. It was in Geneva that the work of John Calvin took place. In 1980 Protestants made up 44% of the country's total population (including foreigners), Catholics - 48%. Among Swiss citizens, the ratio of the two main faiths is somewhat different: Protestants - 55%, Catholics - 43%. The overwhelming majority of Protestants in Switzerland are Reformed. There are 19 independent Reformed churches in the country, organized mainly by cantons.

There are also Old Catholics in Switzerland (Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland - 20 thousand followers, or 0.3% of the population).

Liechtenstein

In the small principality of Liechtenstein. located between Switzerland and Austria, Catholics predominate (88% of the total population). Protestants living in the principality (7%) are concentrated mainly in the area of ​​the capital of the principality - Vaduz.

Austria

On the territory of modern Austria, Christianity began to spread from the end of the 3rd century. Currently, the dominant trend in the country is Catholicism. Catholics make up 89% of the population, Protestants - 6%. The majority of Austrian Protestants are Lutherans. Lutherans are concentrated mainly in the south of Upper Austria, north-west Styria, west Carinthia and south Burgenland. There are approximately 25 thousand Old Catholics in Austria.

Portugal

Christianity first penetrated into Portugal in the 4th century. Now the majority of the country's population (98%) adheres to Catholicism. There are also a number of Protestant groups.

Spain

In Spain, Christianity has existed since the 4th century. n. e., however, during the period of the Arab conquest, the position of this religion was greatly displaced. The overwhelming majority of Spanish believers are Catholics (according to official church data, they make up 98% of the country's population). There are also Protestants in the country: Baptists, members of the Spanish Evangelical Church, supporters of the Spanish Evangelical Alliance.

Andorra

In the small principality of Andorra, located in the Pyrenees, between France and Spain, almost all believers adhere to Catholicism.

Malta

In Malta, the Roman Catholic Church is the state church and enjoys enormous influence. The vast majority (98%) of the country's population belongs to Catholicism. There are very small groups of Protestants. There is a small group of Judaists.

Italy

Italy is one of the first European countries in whose territory Christianity spread widely. Catholics make up the vast majority of the country's population. There is also a Greek Catholic Church in Italy, which works among the Greeks and Albanians living in Italy. There are also Orthodox Christians. There are about 100 thousand Protestants in the country (most of all in Piedmont). These are followers of the Pentecostal Assemblies of God (55 thousand), Lutherans (6 thousand), Seventh-day Adventists (5 thousand), Baptists (5 thousand), Methodists (4 thousand), supporters Salvation Army, etc.

San Marino

In the small republic of San Marino, surrounded on all sides by Italian territory, the overwhelming majority of residents (95%) are Catholics.

Greece

Greece, like Italy, adopted Christianity very early. Communities of Christians appeared on its territory already in the 1st century. AD, and in the II-III centuries. the new religion spread throughout the country. In the 11th century, after the split of the Christian Church, Greece became one of the strongholds of its eastern branch - Orthodoxy. Now the Greek Orthodox Church is the state church in Greece. It unites 97% of the country's population. Catholicism was not widespread in Greece.

Yugoslavia

In Yugoslavia (Christianity was introduced into the modern territory of this country in the 9th century) there is currently significant religious diversity. Orthodoxy is professed by 41% of the population, Catholicism - 32%, Protestantism - about 1%, Islam - more than 12%.

Protestants are represented in Yugoslavia primarily by Lutherans and Reformed people. In addition to Lutherans and Reformed people, there are Adventists, Pentecostals, Baptists, and Methodists in the country.

Albania

Christianity and Islam are widespread in Albania. Christianity began to spread in this country since the 2nd-3rd centuries. n. e., Islam began to be introduced in the 17th century, after the Turkish conquest. Muslims are the majority of the country's believers. Christianity is represented by the Orthodox Church, whose followers more than 20% Albanian believers, and the Roman Catholic Church, which includes about 10% of the total believing population.

Bulgaria

Bulgaria, where Christianity penetrated in the 9th century, became one of the strongholds of Orthodoxy in the early Middle Ages. And now 85% of the country’s believers belong to the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, 3% of believers, mainly in the south and east of the country, profess Islam. A small number of the country's inhabitants (50 thousand) are Catholics. There are also Protestant communities (16 thousand members). These are Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists and Reformed Adventists, Methodists, Pentecostals, Reformed, Congregationalists.

Romania

The penetration of Christianity into Romania dates back to the 4th century. Currently, approximately 85% of believers are Orthodox. The bulk of them are united by the Romanian Orthodox Church. Adjacent to the Orthodox are a small group of Old Believers (descendants of immigrants from Russia). A fairly significant number of believers (1.2 million) adhere to Catholicism. This is primarily a part of the Hungarians and Germans living in Romania and a small number of Romanians. Among the Protestants, the most numerous are the Reformed.

Hungary

The Hungarians were converted to Christianity in the 11th century. In the 16th century Most of the Hungarians adopted Protestantism, but in the 17th century, during the period of the Counter-Reformation, Catholicism triumphed again and now about two-thirds of the Hungarian believers are Catholics. A group of Greek Catholics lives in the eastern regions of the country. Most of the remaining believers are Protestants. The largest group of them is formed by reformats (2 million). The number of Lutherans is also significant (500 thousand), while the number of followers of other Protestant denominations is small. Nazarenes.

Czech Republic and Slovakia

In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Christianity established itself in the 9th century, although there is reason to believe that it penetrated into some areas somewhat earlier. The main part of believers currently adheres to Catholicism. Of the Protestant movements, Lutheranism occupies the strongest position. The Slovak Lutheran Church unites some of the Slovak believers.

Poland

In Poland (Christianity established itself in this country in the 10th century), the overwhelming majority of believers are Catholics. There is a relatively small group of Greek Catholics in the country. In Poland there are a number of churches that, for one reason or another, separated from the Roman Catholic Church. Protestantism is represented by a number of its movements and sects.

FOREIGN ASIA

Asia is the part of the world where all major religions originated globe: Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Confucianism, Shintoism. However, the fate of these religions was different. Some of them spread widely in other parts of the world (Christianity, Islam, Judaism), while others remained mainly Asian religions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Confucianism, Shintoism).

Currently, Islam is the most widespread religion in South-West Asia. Two countries in the area are non-Muslim: Cyprus, where Christians predominate, and Israel, where the majority of residents practice Judaism.

Cyprus

Cyprus is one of two predominantly Christian countries in Asia (the other is the Philippines). Christianity penetrated the island in the 1st century. AD The vast majority of the population - Greeks - adheres almost exclusively to Orthodoxy. There is an autocephalous Orthodox Church of Cyprus on the island, the influence of which is very great. Orthodox believers make up 77% of the island's population. Other religious groups are small. These are Maronites (3 thousand), Roman Catholics, Armenian Gregorians (3.5 thousand), Anglicans, Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-day Adventists, etc.

Philippines

The Philippines is mainly a Christian country (since the 16th century). The overwhelming majority of the Filipino population adheres to Christianity. The bulk of Filipino Christians are Catholics (84% of the country's total population). In 1901, the Philippine Independent Church, sometimes called after its founder Bishop Aglipay Aglipayan, broke away from Roman Catholicism. She unites 5% population. This church is the most influential in Luzon. Protestants make up 6% of the population. The followers of the largest Protestant church organization - the United Church of Christ in the Philippines (the church united Reformed, Presbyterian and some other Protestant groups) number 475 thousand people. Of the other Protestants, first of all it is necessary to note the Methodists, Seventh-day Adventists, and Baptists. Less large groups formed by Anglicans, various Pentecostal groups, members of the Philippine Missionary Churches of Christ.

AFRICA

Currently, several groups of religions are widespread among the peoples of the African continent: local traditional cults and religions, Islam, Christianity, to a lesser extent Hinduism, Judaism and some others. A special place is occupied by syncretic Christian-African churches and sects.

The spread of Christianity in Africa began in the 2nd century. AD Initially it spread to Egypt and Ethiopia, and then along the coast of North Africa. At the beginning of the 4th century. Among Christians in Africa, a movement arose for the creation of an African church independent of Rome. In the 5th century The Monophysite Church was formed, uniting Christians of Egypt and Ethiopia. From the 7th century in North Africa, Christianity is gradually being replaced by Islam. At present, original Christianity has been preserved only among part of the local population of Egypt, among the majority of the population of Ethiopia, etc. a small group in Su-dan.

In the 15th century, with the arrival of the Portuguese conquerors, the second period of the spread of Christianity began in Africa, but in a Western direction. Catholic missionaries appeared along with the conquistadors. The first attempts to Christianize Africans were made on the Guinea coast, but they were ineffective. The activities of missionaries in the Congo were more successful, but even here Christianity spread mainly among the tribal aristocracy. During the XVI-XVIII centuries. Christian missionaries made repeated attempts to extend their influence to the peoples of Africa, but to no avail.

The third stage in the spread of Christianity in Africa begins in the mid-19th century. This was a period of colonial expansion, when Western European countries began to seize vast territories on the African continent. At this time, missionary activity sharply intensifies. The Roman Catholic Church creates special orders and missionary societies.

After the Second World War, the fourth period in the history of the Christianization of Africa begins. This period takes place in conditions of a general crisis of the colonial system and the achievement of independence by many African countries.

Of the Protestant organizations of churches and sects, the Dutch Reformed were the earliest to begin missionary activity in Africa - from the middle of the 17th century. in the south of the continent, Anglicans and Methodists - from the beginning of the 19th century.

Christianity is currently professed by 85 million people. About 8 million of them are immigrants from Europe or their descendants. Adherents of certain trends in Christianity are distributed as follows: Catholics - over 38%, Protestants - about 37%, Monophysites - more than 24%, the rest - Orthodox and Uniates. Christians are most concentrated in the countries of East Africa - over a third (35% of the population), and the same in West Africa. In South Africa, Christians make up a quarter of the region's population, and here there are about three times fewer Catholics than Protestants. Half of all African Protestants are in two countries - South Africa (27%) and Nigeria (22%).

Christian-African churches and sects are organizations that broke away from Western churches and sects and created their own dogma, their own rituals, ceremonies, etc., combining traditional elements of beliefs and cults with elements of Christianity.

According to some estimates, there are 9 million adherents of Christian African churches and sects throughout Tropical Africa, which is 3% of the population of this region.

AMERICA

Before the start of European colonization, the indigenous population of America (various groups of Indians, as well as the Eskimos) adhered to various local cults. Totemistic beliefs were preserved among many Indian peoples. Magical performances played a significant role.

Since the time of European colonization (i.e., from the end of the 15th century), Christianity began to gradually penetrate into America. In Central and South America, where the Spanish and Portuguese conquistadors mainly operated, Christianity penetrated in the form of Catholicism, while in North America, which was under the control of the British, French and Dutch, along with Catholicism outside Protestantism also crumbled.

Currently, the vast majority of the American population is Christian. South America is heavily dominated by Catholics. They make up the majority of the population in all countries, with the exception of the Falkland Islands (Malvinas), where Protestantism is widespread, as well as Guyana and Suriname, which are distinguished by their diverse religious composition. Catholicism is also the main religion in all Central American countries and Mexico. In the West Indies, the religious composition varies markedly from island to island. In countries that previously belonged to Spain and France (Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, etc.), as well as in the current French colonies (Guadeloupe, Martinique), the majority of residents adhere to Catholicism, but in countries for a long time those under the domination of Great Britain (Jamaica, Barbados, etc.), the bulk of the inhabitants are Protestants. In the USA and Canada there are many Protestants and Catholics, but the first place in terms of the number of believers in these two states still belongs to Protestantism.

There are relatively few followers of local cults left in America, and their number is constantly decreasing (due to converts to the Christian faith).

USA

The picture of the religious affiliation of the population in the United States is very complex. In terms of the abundance of sects and independent church organizations, this country ranks first in the world. Although almost all church groups in the United States keep systematic records of their membership, determining the religious composition of the population is very difficult. They lie in the fact that churches and sects in the United States adhere to different criteria when determining the number of their members. Thus, the Roman Catholic Church, and more recently also the Episcopal Church and many Lutheran church organizations, take into account all the baptized. Judaic communities consider all Jews to be their members. Most Protestant organizations show the number of only “full members,” i.e., persons who have reached a certain (usually 13 years of age) age. This shows that official data on the number of various religious groups in many cases do not make it possible to determine the share of one or another religious group in the entire population of the country.

Of the individual church organizations, the Roman Catholic Church has the largest number of followers. Catholics in the United States are primarily descendants of immigrants from Ireland, Italy, Poland and other countries with a predominantly Catholic population. In addition to Catholics of the Latin rite in the United States, there are also Catholics of the Eastern rites (the so-called Uniates). Among the Uniates, Greek Catholics predominate. The overwhelming majority are Ukrainians, Romanians, Italian Greeks, Hungarians, Croats, a small number of Belarusians and Russians.

Baptists form the largest group among Protestants in the United States. There are 27.1 million full members of Baptist communities. They are united by a number of independent church organizations, of which the Southern Baptist Convention (13,790 thousand members) is more or less significant.

There are a number of Old Catholic church organizations in the USA. The largest of them - the North American Old Roman Catholic Church (English Rite) - numbers 61 thousand. In addition, the country also has the Polish National Catholic Church, which is Old Catholic in doctrine.

There are 4.9 million followers of Orthodoxy in the United States. However, there is no single Orthodox Church in the country, but there is a significant number of separate Orthodox national churches, and sometimes even within the same national group the Orthodox are fragmented into several church organizations.

Mexico

The vast majority of the population (89%) are Catholics. Protestants make up about 4% of the population, among them most are Baptists (363 thousand) and Presbyterians (233 thousand). There are also followers of the Swedish Free Mission (80 thousand), Seventh-day Adventists (53 thousand), Methodists (40 thousand), and various Pentecostal groups.

Brazil

In Brazil, the largest Latin American country, Catholics make up the majority of the population (90%). There are 7.9 million Protestants in this country. The largest group is formed by Lutherans (2.1 million, mostly Germans). In addition, there are Baptists (1.1 million).

Venezuela

In Venezuela, Catholics also make up the majority of the population (96%). There are not many Protestants.

Colombia

In Colombia, the Roman Catholic Church is considered the state church. 96% of the total population belongs to it. The total number of Protestants is 90 thousand people. The largest groups of Protestants are Seventh-day Adventists (16 thousand), Presbyterians (15 thousand), followers of the Evangelical Churches (11 thousand), Baptists (10 thousand), and Pentecostals.

Ecuador

In Ecuador, the overwhelming majority of the population (94%) belongs to Catholicism. Protestants - 19 thousand. A significant part of them are followers of the Christian and Missionary Alliance.

Peru

The majority of Peru's population (93%) is Catholic. Protestants - 128 thousand. Of the Protestant groups, the most significant are Seventh-day Adventists (33 thousand), Pentecostals (12 thousand, including the Assemblies of God - 7 thousand, Pentecostal Autonomous Churches - 5 thousand), Methodists ( 9 thousand). adherents of the Peruvian Evangelical Church (8 thousand), Nazarenes (5 thousand), Baptists (5 thousand), followers of the Christian and Missionary Alliance (4 thousand), Presbyterians (3 thousand), Lutherans (3 thousand) , adherents of the Pilgrimage Church of Holiness (2 thousand), 5 thousand Judaists also live in Peru.

Bolivia

In Bolivia, the majority of the population (94%) is Catholic. There are 43 thousand Protestants living in the country. The most numerous of them are Seventh-day Adventists (11 thousand), Baptists (8 thousand), Quakers (6 thousand), followers of the Bolivian Indian Mission (6 thousand), Methodists (3 thousand), five Tecostals (3 thousand, including followers of the Assemblies of God - 2 thousand), Nazarenes (2 thousand). There are 750 Judaists in Bolivia.

Chile

In Chile, the majority (86%) of the inhabitants belong to Catholicism. According to church organizations, Protestants are 880 thousand. The main group of Chilean Protestants are Pentecostals (according to official church sources, 700 thousand).

Argentina

In Argentina, the majority of the population (92%) are Catholics. There are over 400 thousand Protestants in this country. Of these, 188 thousand are Lutherans (mostly Germans and Danes).

Paraguay

In Paraguay, Catholicism is the state religion. Catholics make up the majority (about 90%) of the population. Protestants - 25 thousand. The largest groups are formed by Baptists (11 thousand).

AUSTRALIA AND OCEANIA

By the time Europeans penetrated Australia and Oceania, the population of this part of the world adhered to various local cults. In Australia and Oceania there lived a large number of peoples and tribes that differed markedly from each other both in the level of their socio-economic development and in their economic and cultural characteristics. Because of this, the traditional beliefs of the Australian and Oceanic peoples were quite diverse.

Traditional beliefs in most of Australia and Oceania were gradually replaced by Christianity, which began to spread following the penetration of colonialists. The earliest missionary work began was in the Mariana Islands. Already in the second half of the 15th century. Catholic missionaries, accompanied by Spanish soldiers, arrived on individual islands of this archipelago. Preachers who belonged to the Jesuit order began to unceremoniously interfere in the lives of the indigenous people and made repeated attempts to forcibly baptize their children. When the islanders began to resist the annoying “guests,” the Jesuits used the soldiers who had arrived with them to mercilessly kill the local residents. The bloody massacre led to the almost complete extermination of the adult male population of the Mariana Islands .

Protestant missionaries entered this part of the world much later. The first attempts to begin missionary work in Oceania were made by Protestants at the end of the 18th century, when individual preachers landed on the islands of Tonga and the Society. However, the activities of missionaries (both Protestant and Catholic) received widespread development only in the 19th century, when they settled on all more or less significant Oceanic islands and atolls.

Very quickly, intense rivalry arose between Protestant and Catholic missionaries. Rival ministers of religion set their adherents against each other, which led to bloody clashes in some archipelagos. A particularly fierce struggle between Catholics and Protestants took place on the islands of Society, Wallis, Rotuma, and Loyalty.

Missionaries are rightly called the harbingers of the colonial enslavement of the Oceanian peoples. It was they who prepared the colonial seizure of many of the archipelagos of Oceania.

Wherever missionaries appeared, they tried to completely eradicate the old pagan culture and introduce Christian customs, often completely alien to the aborigines. In this effort, preachers often reached the point of complete obscurantism. For example, Spanish missionaries on Easter Island destroyed most of the tablets with the ancient writing of the island-chan. Of course, all this does not mean that among the missionaries there were no honest people who treated the indigenous population well and sincerely wished them well. It should also be noted that some aspects of missionary work (for example, teaching the islanders to read and write) objectively contributed to raising the cultural level of local residents. However, in general, the activities of missionaries in Oceania should be assessed negatively.

As already indicated, at present the overwhelming majority of the indigenous population of Australia and Oceania are Christians. It should, however, be emphasized that very often the affiliation of local residents with the Christian religion is of a very formal nature. They usually do not delve into the intricacies of religious doctrine and, moreover, often remain faithful to their ancient traditions and rituals. Often, especially among peoples who have recently converted to Christianity, one can observe a kind of dual faith, when the prescriptions of both the old and the new religion are observed.

The above-mentioned struggle between Protestants and Catholics brought more victories to the former than to the latter. In addition, among the Europeans who immigrated to Australia and Oceania, Protestants numerically prevailed over Catholics. As a result, Protestantism in this part of the world turned out to be more influential than Catholicism. At the same time, Protestants, unlike Catholics, as is known, do not represent unity in organizational terms, but are divided into a significant number of movements and sects. In Australia and Oceania, the most influential Protestant movements are Anglicanism, Methodism, Lutheranism, Presbyterianism, Reformedness, and Congregationalism. There are also Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, Pentecostals and other Protestant sects.

Protestantism is adhered to by the entire population of Pitcairn, the majority of the Christian population of Australia, New Zealand, Norfolk, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, Nauru, Tuvalu, Tokelau, Western and Eastern Samoa, Tonga, Niue, islands Cook, French Polynesia, slightly more than half of the Christians of Kiribati and the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, a significant part of the inhabitants of New Caledonia (together with its subordinate islands) and Hawaii.

The Anglican Church, in terms of the number of its adherents, is the most significant Protestant movement in Australia and Oceania. The vast majority of Anglicans are descendants of English settlers in Australia and New Zealand. Anglicanism also occupies a leading position in Norfolk. Among the indigenous population, there are significant Anglican groups in Melanesia - primarily in the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea.

There are quite a lot of Methodists in New Zealand; they predominate among Christians in Fiji and Tonga.

Presbyterians are most numerous in New Zealand, as well as in Vanuatu (in this country Presbyterianism ranks first in the number of followers).

Christianity today.

Over the centuries of Christianity's spread throughout the world, it has assimilated into different cultures, often displacing older pagan beliefs.

Every year we receive more and more accurate information about the state of affairs in the Christian world. However, it should be noted that every church has more members than active believers, and in some cases membership turns out to be purely symbolic. The number of people who regularly attend church in Britain (less than 10%) is lower than in many other countries, but repeated surveys confirm that about 70% of people profess to believe in God and pray regularly.

In the United States, about 42% of the population regularly goes to church. In Italy, about 33% of residents regularly attend mass, and 85% claim to belong to the Roman Catholic Church. In France, about 13% of the population regularly attends church.

Christianity originated in the Middle East and also appeared in North Africa in its earliest stages. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, there was a noticeable revival of the missionary movement; as a result, the Christian Church took root on all continents and exists in almost all countries. The Christian faith continues to spread, but the center of gravity is rapidly shifting from Europe and (to a lesser extent) the United States to Africa, Asia and Latin America. Demographic trends in these countries suggest that the 21st century church will be increasingly composed of younger, more energetic, and poorer people who are not white.

Modern problems.

Over the past few decades, churches have been involved in debates on the following topics:

Is a “just war” possible in the nuclear age;

Terrorism: whether the “freedom fighter” is a soldier or a criminal;

Population Explosion: Food and Other Resources, World Trade and Third World Debts;

Ecology and integrity of Creation;

Substance abuse;

Human sexuality, including homosexuality;

Pregnancy: status and protection of the human embryo;

Animal Rights;

Marriage, cohabitation, divorce and family problems;

AIDS, the problem of abortion;

Living in a society where there are many cultures and beliefs.

Conclusion

Dogmas are eternal and inexhaustible. The stages of their revelation in the consciousness and history of the church, their definitions, are milestones on which are inscribed guiding, unmistakable instructions on where and how living Christian thought, individual and collective, should confidently and safely go. The history of religion, and in particular Christianity, is the unfolding of the stages of the ever-increasing revelation of God in the destinies of earthly humanity, and even more precisely - in the destinies of some of its parts, i.e. individual peoples.

Getting acquainted with the official history of the development of the Earth, we see how, against the backdrop of constant wars and struggles for power, teachings appear that try to show each person his true face, goals and objectives, and place in cosmic evolution. Such teachings are the world's religions, and in particular Christianity: they adhere to it and, I think, will adhere to it for many years and maybe even centuries.

Bibliography:

1. Encyclopedia for children (religions of the world). Publ. “Avanta+” 1996

2. Religions of the world. Publishing house “Enlightenment” 1994

3. “Christianity.” Publishing house Bargain. "Grand" house 1998

4. The search for hope and the spirit of consolation (essays on the history of religion). Publishing house MSHA 1991

5. An atheist's handbook. 8th edition.

About a third of the world's inhabitants profess Christianity in all its varieties.

Christianity arose in the 1st century. AD. on the territory of the Roman Empire. There is no consensus among researchers about the exact place of origin of Christianity. Some believe that this happened in Palestine, which was at that time part of the Roman Empire; others suggest that it happened in the Jewish diaspora in Greece.

Palestinian Jews were under foreign dominion for many centuries. However, in the 2nd century. BC. they achieved political independence, during which they expanded their territory and did a lot to develop political and economic relations. In 63 BC. roman general Gney Poltey brought troops into Judea, as a result of which it became part of the Roman Empire. By the beginning of our era, other territories of Palestine had lost their independence; administration began to be carried out by a Roman governor.

The loss of political independence was perceived by part of the population as a tragedy. Political events were seen to have a religious meaning. The idea of ​​divine retribution for violations of the covenants of the fathers, religious customs and prohibitions spread. This led to a strengthening of the position of Jewish religious nationalist groups:

• Hasidim- devout Jews;
• Sadducees, who represented conciliatory sentiments, they came from the upper strata of Jewish society;
• Pharisees- fighters for the purity of Judaism, against contacts with foreigners. The Pharisees advocated compliance with external standards of behavior, for which they were accused of hypocrisy.

In terms of social composition, the Pharisees were representatives of the middle strata of the urban population. At the end of the 1st century. BC. appear zealots- people from the lower strata of the population - artisans and lumpen proletarians. They expressed the most radical ideas. Standing out from their midst sicari- terrorists. Their favorite weapon was a curved dagger, which they hid under their cloak - in Latin "sika". All these groups fought the Roman conquerors with more or less persistence. It was obvious that the struggle was not going in favor of the rebels, so aspirations for the coming of the Savior, the Messiah, intensified. The oldest book of the New Testament dates back to the first century AD. Apocalypse, in which the idea of ​​retribution to enemies for unfair treatment and oppression of Jews was so strongly manifested.

The sect is of greatest interest Essenes or Essen, since their teaching had features inherent in early Christianity. This is evidenced by the findings found in 1947 in the Dead Sea area in Qumran caves scrolls. Christians and Essenes had common ideas messianism- anticipation of the Savior's imminent coming, eschatological ideas about the coming end of the world, interpretation of the idea of ​​human sinfulness, rituals, organization of communities, attitude towards property.

The processes that took place in Palestine were similar to the processes that took place in other parts of the Roman Empire: everywhere the Romans plundered and mercilessly exploited the local population, enriching themselves at their expense. The crisis of the ancient order and the formation of new socio-political relations were experienced painfully by people, caused a feeling of helplessness, defenselessness in front of the state machine and contributed to the search for new ways of salvation. Mystical sentiments increased. Eastern cults are spreading: Mithra, Isis, Osiris, etc. Many different associations, partnerships, so-called colleges are appearing. People united based on professions, social status, neighborhood, etc. All this created favorable conditions for the spread of Christianity.

Origins of Christianity

The emergence of Christianity was prepared not only by the prevailing historical conditions, it had a good ideological basis. The main ideological source of Christianity is Judaism. The new religion rethought the ideas of Judaism about monotheism, messianism, eschatology, chiliasma- faith in the second coming of Jesus Christ and his thousand-year reign on earth. The Old Testament tradition has not lost its meaning; it has received a new interpretation.

The ancient philosophical tradition had a significant influence on the formation of the Christian worldview. In philosophical systems Stoics, Neopythagoreans, Plato and Neoplatonists mental constructs, concepts and even terms were developed, reinterpreted in New Testament texts and the works of theologians. Especially big influence Neoplatonism influenced the foundations of Christian doctrine Philo of Alexandria(25 BC - c. 50 AD) and the moral teaching of the Roman Stoic Seneca(c. 4 BC - 65 AD). Philo formulated the concept Logos as a sacred law that allows one to contemplate existence, the doctrine of the innate sinfulness of all people, of repentance, of Being as the beginning of the world, of ecstasy as a means of approaching God, of logoi, among which the Son of God is the highest Logos, and other logoi are angels.

Seneca considered the main thing for every person to achieve freedom of spirit through awareness of divine necessity. If freedom does not flow from divine necessity, it will turn out to be slavery. Only obedience to fate gives rise to equanimity and peace of mind, conscience, moral standards, and universal human values. Seneca recognized the golden rule of morality as a moral imperative, which sounded as follows: “ Treat those below you the way you would like to be treated by those above you.". We can find a similar formulation in the Gospels.

Seneca’s teachings about the transience and deceitfulness of sensual pleasures, caring for other people, self-restraint in the use of material goods, preventing rampant passions, the need for modesty and moderation in everyday life, self-improvement, and the acquisition of divine mercy had a certain influence on Christianity.

Another source of Christianity was the eastern cults that flourished at that time in various parts of the Roman Empire.

The most controversial issue in the study of Christianity is the question of the historicity of Jesus Christ. In solving it, two directions can be distinguished: mythological and historical. Mythological direction claims that science does not have reliable data about Jesus Christ as a historical figure. The Gospel stories were written many years after the events described; they have no real historical basis. Historical direction claims that Jesus Christ was a real person, a preacher of a new religion, which is confirmed by a number of sources. In 1971, a text was found in Egypt "Antiquities" by Josephus, which gives reason to believe that it describes one of the real preachers named Jesus, although the miracles he performed were spoken of as one of the many stories on this topic, i.e. Josephus himself did not observe them.

Stages of the formation of Christianity as a state religion

The history of the formation of Christianity covers the period from the middle of the 1st century. AD until the 5th century inclusive. During this period, Christianity went through a number of stages of its development, which can be summarized as follows:

1 - stage current eschatology(second half of the 1st century);

2 - stage devices(II century);

3 - stage struggle for dominance in the empire (III-V centuries).

During each of these stages, the composition of believers changed, various new formations emerged and disintegrated within Christianity as a whole, and internal clashes constantly raged, which expressed the struggle for the realization of vital public interests.

Stage of actual eschatology

At the first stage, Christianity had not yet completely separated from Judaism, so it can be called Judeo-Christian. The name “current eschatology” means that the defining mood of the new religion at that time was the expectation of the coming of the Savior in the near future, literally from day to day. The social basis of Christianity became enslaved, dispossessed people suffering from national and social oppression. The hatred of the enslaved for their oppressors and the thirst for revenge found their expression and release not in revolutionary actions, but in the impatient anticipation of the reprisal that would be inflicted by the coming Messiah on the Antichrist.

In early Christianity there was no single centralized organization, there were no priests. Communities were led by believers who were able to accept charisma(grace, the descent of the Holy Spirit). Charismatics united groups of believers around themselves. People were singled out who were engaged in explaining the doctrine. They were called didaskals- teachers. Special people were appointed to organize the economic life of the community. Originally appeared deacons who performed simple technical duties. Later appear bishops- observers, guards, and elders- elders. Over time, bishops occupy a dominant position, and presbyters become their assistants.

Adjustment stage

At the second stage, in the 2nd century, the situation changes. The end of the world does not occur; on the contrary, there is some stabilization of Roman society. The tension of expectation in the mood of Christians is replaced by a more vital attitude of existence in the real world and adaptation to its orders. The place of general eschatology in this world is occupied by individual eschatology in other world, the doctrine of the immortality of the soul is being actively developed.

The social and national composition of communities is changing. Representatives of the wealthy and educated strata of the population of various nations inhabiting the Roman Empire began to convert to Christianity. Accordingly, the doctrine of Christianity changes, it becomes more tolerant of wealth. The attitude of the authorities towards the new religion depended on the political situation. One emperor carried out persecution, the other showed humanity if the internal political situation allowed it.

Development of Christianity in the 2nd century. led to a complete break from Judaism. There were fewer and fewer Jews among Christians in comparison with other nationalities. It was necessary to solve problems of practical cult significance: food prohibitions, the celebration of the Sabbath, circumcision. As a result, circumcision was replaced by water baptism, the weekly celebration of Saturday was moved to Sunday, the Easter holiday was converted to Christianity under the same name, but was filled with a different mythological content, just like the Pentecost holiday.

The influence of other peoples on the formation of the cult in Christianity was manifested in the borrowing of rituals or their elements: baptism, communion as a symbol of sacrifice, prayer and some others.

During the 3rd century. formation of large Christian centers in Rome, Antioch, Jerusalem, Alexandria, in a number of cities in Asia Minor and other areas. However, the church itself was not internally unified: there were differences among Christian teachers and preachers regarding the correct understanding of Christian truths. Christianity was torn apart from within by the most complex theological disputes. Many trends emerged that interpreted the provisions of the new religion in different ways.

Nazarenes(from Hebrew - “to refuse, to abstain”) - ascetic preachers of ancient Judea. An outward sign of belonging to the Nazirites was the refusal to cut hair and drink wine. Subsequently, the Nazirites merged with the Essenes.

Montanism arose in the 2nd century. Founder Montana on the eve of the end of the world, he preached asceticism, a ban on remarriage, and martyrdom in the name of faith. He regarded ordinary Christian communities as mentally ill; he considered only his adherents spiritual.

Gnosticism(from the Greek - “having knowledge”) eclectically connected ideas borrowed mainly from Platonism and Stoicism with Eastern ideas. The Gnostics recognized the existence of a perfect deity, between whom and the sinful material world there are intermediate links - zones. Jesus Christ was also included among them. The Gnostics were pessimistic about the sensory world, emphasized their chosenness of God, the advantage of intuitive knowledge over rational knowledge, did not accept the Old Testament, the redemptive mission of Jesus Christ (but recognized the saving one), and his bodily incarnation.

Docetism(from Greek - “to seem”) - a direction that separated from Gnosticism. Corporality was considered an evil, lower principle, and on this basis they rejected the Christian teaching about the bodily incarnation of Jesus Christ. They believed that Jesus only appeared to be clothed in flesh, but in reality his birth, earthly existence and death were ghostly phenomena.

Marcionism(named after the founder - Marcion) advocated a complete break with Judaism, did not recognize the human nature of Jesus Christ, and was close to the Gnostics in his basic ideas.

Novatians(named after the founders - Rome. Novatiana and carf. Novata) took a tough position towards the authorities and those Christians who could not resist the pressure of the authorities and compromised with them.

The stage of the struggle for dominance in the empire

At the third stage, the final establishment of Christianity as the state religion occurs. In 305, the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire intensified. This period in church history known as "era of martyrs". Places of worship were closed, church property was confiscated, books and sacred utensils were confiscated and destroyed, plebeians recognized as Christians were enslaved, senior members of the clergy were arrested and executed, as well as those who did not obey the order to renounce and honor the Roman gods. Those who yielded were quickly released. For the first time, burial places belonging to communities became a temporary refuge for the persecuted, where they practiced their cult.

However, the measures taken by the authorities had no effect. Christianity has already strengthened sufficiently to provide worthy resistance. Already in 311 the emperor Galleries, and in 313 - emperor Konstantin adopt decrees on religious tolerance towards Christianity. Especially great importance has the activities of Emperor Constantine I.

During the fierce struggle for power before the decisive battle with Macentius, Constantine saw in a dream the sign of Christ - a cross with the command to come out with this symbol against the enemy. Having accomplished this, he won a decisive victory in the battle in 312. The Emperor gave this vision a very special meaning - as a sign of his election by Christ to establish a connection between God and the world through his imperial service. This is exactly how his role was perceived by Christians of his time, which allowed the unbaptized emperor to take an active part in resolving intra-church, dogmatic issues.

In 313 Constantine issued Edict of Milan, according to which Christians become under the protection of the state and receive equal rights with pagans. The Christian Church was no longer persecuted, even during the reign of the emperor Juliana(361-363), nicknamed Renegade for restricting the rights of the church and proclaiming tolerance for heresies and paganism. Under the Emperor Feodosia in 391, Christianity was finally consolidated as the state religion, and paganism was prohibited. The further development and strengthening of Christianity is associated with the holding of councils, at which church dogma was worked out and approved.

Christianization of pagan tribes

By the end of the 4th century. Christianity established itself in almost all provinces of the Roman Empire. In the 340s. through the efforts of Bishop Wulfila, it penetrates to the tribes ready. The Goths adopted Christianity in the form of Arianism, which then dominated the east of the empire. As the Visigoths advanced westward, Arianism also spread. In the 5th century in Spain it was adopted by the tribes vandals And Suevi. in Galin - Burgundians and then Lombards. The Frankish king adopted Orthodox Christianity Clovis. Political reasons led to the fact that by the end of the 7th century. In most parts of Europe, the Nicene religion was established. In the 5th century The Irish were introduced to Christianity. The activities of the legendary Apostle of Ireland date back to this time. St. Patrick's.

The Christianization of barbarian peoples was carried out mainly from above. Pagan ideas and images continued to live in the minds of the masses of the people. The Church assimilated these images and adapted them to Christianity. Pagan rituals and holidays were filled with new, Christian content.

From the end of the 5th to the beginning of the 7th century. The power of the Pope was limited only to the Roman ecclesiastical province in Central and Southern Italy. However, in 597 an event occurred that marked the beginning of the strengthening of the Roman Church throughout the kingdom. Dad Gregory I the Great sent Christian preachers led by a monk to the pagan Anglo-Saxons Augustine. According to legend, the pope saw English slaves at the market and was surprised at the similarity of their name with the word “angels,” which he considered a sign from above. The Anglo-Saxon Church became the first church north of the Alps to be subject directly to Rome. The symbol of this dependence became pallium(a scarf worn on the shoulders), which was sent from Rome to the primate of the church, now called archbishop, i.e. the highest bishop, to whom powers were delegated directly from the pope - the vicar of St. Petra. Subsequently, the Anglo-Saxons made a great contribution to the strengthening of the Roman Church on the continent, to the alliance of the Pope with the Carolingians. Played a significant role in this St. Boniface, a native of Wessex. He developed a program of profound reforms of the Frankish church with the goal of establishing uniformity and subordination to Rome. Boniface's reforms created the overall Roman Church in Western Europe. Only the Christians of Arab Spain preserved the special traditions of the Visigothic church.

Sources

There are no statistics or exact information, there are only isolated hints from the following authors: Pliny (107): Er. X. 96 sq. (Epistle to Trajan). Ignatius (near PO): Ad Magnes., With. 10. Er. ad Diogn.(about 120) p. 6.

Justin Martyr (about 140): Dial. 117; Apol. I. 53.

Irenaeus (about 170): Adv. Haer. I. 10; III. 3, 4; v. 20, etc.

Tertullian (about 200): Apol. I. 21, 37, 41, 42; Ad Nat. I. 7; Ad Scap., c. 2, 5; Adv. Jud. 7, 12, 13.

Origen (died 254): Contr. Cels. I. 7, 27; II. 13, 46; III. 10, 30; De Princ. 1. IV, p. 12; Com.

in Math., p. 857, ed. Delarue.

Eusebius (died 340): Hist. Eccl. III. 1; v. 1; vii, 1; viii. 1, also books ix. and x. Rufin: Hist. Eccles. ix. 6.

Augustine (died 430): De Civitate Dei. English translation: M. Dods, Edinburgh 1871; new ed. (Schaffs “Nicene and Post–Nicene Library”), N. York 1887.

Proceedings

Mich. Le Quien (Dominican scholar, died 1783): Orlens Christianus. Par. 1740. 3 vols. fol. Complete ecclesiastical geography of the East, divided into four patriarchates - Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem.

Mosheim: Historical Commentaries, etc. (ed. Murdock) I. 259–290.

Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Chap. xv.

A. Reugnot: Histoire de la destruction du paganisms en Occident. Paris 1835, 2 vols. Awarded Academie des inscriptions et belles–letters.

Etienne Chastel: Histoire de la destruction du paganisme dans L"empire d"Orient. Paris 1850. Essay awarded by the Academy.

Neander: History of the Christian Religion. and Church(tr. Torrey), I. 68–79.

Wiltsch: Handbuch der kirchl. Geographie and. Statistic. Berlin 1846.1, p. 32 sqq.

Chs. Merivale: Conversion of the Roman Empire(Boyle Lectures for 1864), republ. N. York 1865. See also his History of the Romans under the Empire, Lond. & N. York, 7 vols, (from Julius Caesar to Marcus Aurelius).

Edward A. Freeman: The Historical Geography of Europe. Lond. & N. York 1881. 2 vols. (vol. I, chs. II. & III, pp. 18–71.)

Compare with Friedlander, Sittengesch. Roms. III. 517 sqq.; and Renan: Marc-Aurele. Paris 1882, ch. xxv, pp. 447–464 (Statistique et extension geographique du Christianisme).

V. Schultze: Geschichte des Untergangs des griech romischen. Heidenthums. Jena 1887.

§4. Obstacles and help

During the first three centuries, Christianity developed under the most unfavorable circumstances, due to which it was able to demonstrate its moral strength and gain victory over the world solely by spiritual weapons. Until the reign of Constantine it had no right to legally exist in the Roman Empire, but it was first ignored as a sect of Judaism, then reviled, banned and persecuted as a treasonous innovation, and the adoption of Christianity was punishable by confiscation of property and death. In addition, Christianity did not allow the slightest indulgence, which Mohammedanism later gave to the vicious inclinations of the human heart, but put forward, against the background of Jewish and pagan ideas of that time, such impossible demands for repentance and conversion, renunciation of oneself and the world, that people, according to Tertullian, they stayed away from the new sect not so much out of love for life as out of love for pleasure. The Jewish origin of Christianity, the poverty and ignorance of the majority of its adherents seemed especially offensive to the pride of the Greeks and Romans. Celsus, exaggerating this fact and not paying attention to many exceptions, mockingly notes that “weavers, shoemakers and fullers, the most illiterate people” preach “an unreasonable faith” and know how to make it attractive especially “to women and children.”

But in spite of these extraordinary difficulties Christianity achieved a success which could be considered a striking evidence of the divine origin of this religion and the fact that it answered the deepest needs of man. Irenaeus, Justin, Tertullian and other church fathers of that period point to this. The difficulties themselves became in the hands of Providence the means of spreading the faith. Persecution led to martyrdom, and martyrdom not only inspires fear, but also has an attraction, awakening the most noble and selfless ambitions. Every true martyr was living proof of the truth and holiness of the Christian faith. Tertullian could exclaim, addressing the pagans: “All your simple-minded cruelties will achieve nothing; they are only a temptation for our church. The more you destroy us, the more we become. The blood of Christians is their seed." The moral sincerity of Christians contrasted sharply with the corruption prevailing in that age, and Christianity, with its condemnation of frivolity and sensuality, simply could not fail to make a great impression on the most serious and noble minds. The fact that the Good News was primarily intended for the poor and oppressed gave it a special consoling and redemptive power. But among the supporters of the new religion, from the very beginning there were also, although small quantity, representatives of the higher, more educated classes - such as Nicodemus, Joseph of Arimathea, the Apostle Paul, the proconsul Sergius Paulus, Dionysius from Athens, Erastus from Corinth and representatives of the imperial house. Among the victims of Domitian's persecution were his close relative Flavia Domitilla and her husband Flavius ​​Clement. In the oldest part of the Callista catacombs, named after Saint Lucina, representatives of the famous gens Pomponia and possibly the house of Flavius. Open or secret converts were among the senators and equestrians. Pliny complains that in Asia Minor people of all classes are converting to Christianity (omnis ordinis). Tertullian claims that a tenth of the inhabitants of Carthage professed Christianity, among whom were senators, noble ladies and the closest relatives of the proconsul of Africa. Many of the church fathers of the mid-2nd century, such as Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Clement, Origen, Tertullian, Cyprian, were superior in talent and level of education to the most prominent pagan contemporaries, or at least equal to them.

This success of Christianity was not limited to any particular area. It extended to all regions of the empire. “Yesterday we were not yet there,” says Tertullian in his Apology, “and today we have already filled all the places that belong to you: cities, islands, fortresses, houses, assemblies, your camp, your tribes and communities, the palace, the senate, the forum ! We left you only your temples. We can compete in numbers with your army: there will be more of us even in one province.” All these facts show how unfair is the odious accusation of Celsus, repeated by the modern skeptic, that the new sect consisted entirely of the lowest strata of society - peasants and artisans, children and women, beggars and slaves.

§5. Reasons for the success of Christianity

The main positive reason for the rapid spread and final victory of Christianity lies in its own inherent value as a universal religion of salvation, in the perfect teaching and example of its God-human Founder, who is to the heart of every believer the Savior from sin and the Giver of eternal life. Christianity is adaptable to the situation of any class, to any condition, to any relationship between men, to all peoples and races, to people of every level of culture, to every soul that longs for holiness of life and redemption from sin. The value of Christianity lies in the truth and power of its teachings, which testify for themselves; in the purity and sublimity of his precepts; in a regenerating and sanctifying influence on the heart and life; in the exaltation of woman and the life of the house over which she rules; in improving the situation of the poor and suffering; in faith, brotherly love, charity and the triumphant death of those who professed it.

To this internal moral and spiritual evidence was added a powerful external proof of the divine origin of Christianity - the prophecies and omens of the Old Testament, so amazingly fulfilled in the New, and finally, the evidence of miracles, which, according to the unequivocal statements of Square, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Origen and others , were sometimes accompanied during that period by the sermons of missionaries trying to convert pagans.

Particularly favorable external circumstances were the extent, orderliness and unity of the Roman Empire, as well as the predominance of the Greek language and culture.

Besides these positive reasons, a significant negative advantage of Christianity was the hopeless situation of Judaism and the pagan world. After the terrible punishment - the destruction of Jerusalem, the persecuted Jews wandered, finding no peace and no longer existing as a nation. Paganism was outwardly widespread, but internally rotten and heading towards inevitable decline. Popular faith and public morality were undermined by skepticism and materialistic philosophy; Greek science and art lost their creative power; The Roman Empire rested only on the strength of the sword and immediate interests; the moral bonds that unite society have been shaken; unbridled greed and vices of every kind, even in the opinion of such men as Seneca and Tacitus, reigned in Rome and in the provinces, extending from palaces to hovels. Virtuous emperors like Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius were the exception, not the rule, and could not stop moral degradation.

Nothing created by classical ancient culture in the days of its heyday was able to heal the mortal wounds of the era or even bring temporary relief. The only star of hope in the approaching night was the young, fresh, fearless religion of Jesus, not afraid of death, strong in faith, spreading love; it was destined to attract all thinking people to itself as the only living religion of the present and future. While the world was constantly shaken by wars and revolutions, and dynasties rose and fell, the new religion, despite terrifying opposition from without and internal dangers, quietly but steadily strengthened its position, relying on the indestructible power of truth, and gradually penetrated into the very flesh and blood humanity.

The great Augustine says: “Christ appeared to the people of a decaying, declining world, so that through Him they could receive a new life, full of youth, while everything around them was withering away.”

NOTES

Gibbon, in his famous fifteenth chapter, attributes the rapid spread of Christianity in the Roman Empire to five causes: the zeal of the early Christians, the belief in future reward and punishment, the power of miracles, the severity (purity) of Christian morality and the compact church organization. But these reasons are themselves the consequences of a reason to which Gibbon does not pay attention, namely: the divine truth of Christianity, the perfection of the teaching of Christ and the example of Christ. See Dr. John Henry Newman's critique Grammar of Assent, 445 sq.) and Dr. George II. Fisher (George P. Fisher, The Beginnings of Christianity, p. 543 sqq.). “This zeal [of the early Christians],” says Fisher, “was a zealous love for the Person and for His service; faith in the future life flowed from faith in the One who died and rose again and ascended into heaven; the miraculous abilities of the first disciples were consciously associated with the same source; the moral purity and fraternal unity which underlie the ecclesiastical ties among the early Christians were also the fruit of their relationship with Christ and their common love for Him. The victory of Christianity in the Roman world was the victory of Christ, who ascended to draw all people to Himself.”

Lecky Hist, of Europe. Morals, I. 412) looks deeper than Gibbon, and attributes the success of early Christianity to its internal superiority and excellent adaptation to the needs of the period of the ancient Roman Empire. “Among this movement,” he writes, “Christianity rose, and it will not be difficult for us to discover the reasons for its success. No other religion under such circumstances has ever combined in itself so many powerful and attractive aspects. Unlike the Jewish religion, it was not associated with any locality and was equally suitable for representatives of any people and any class. Unlike Stoicism, it was powerfully appealing to the senses and had all the charm of compassionate worship. Unlike the Egyptian religion, it added to its unique teaching a pure and noble ethical system and proved itself capable of putting it into practice. At the moment of the process of social and national fusion unfolding everywhere, she proclaimed the universal brotherhood of people. Amidst the corrupting influence of philosophy and civilization, she taught the supreme holiness of love. For a slave who never played much of a role in the religious life of Rome, it was the religion of the suffering and oppressed. For the philosopher, this was both an echo of the higher ethics of the late Stoics and the development of the best teachings of Plato’s school. For a world hungry for miracles, it offered a history full of miracles no less extraordinary than those performed by Apollonius of Tyana; Jews and Chaldeans could hardly compete with Christian exorcists, and legends about the constant performance of miracles spread among the followers of this faith. To a world deeply conscious of political disintegration, and eagerly and eagerly looking forward to the future, it proclaimed with thrilling force the imminent destruction of the globe—the glory of all its friends and the condemnation of all its enemies. For a world that had become tired of the cold and dispassionate greatness conceptualized by Cato and sung by Lucan, she offered an ideal of compassion and love - an ideal called upon throughout the centuries to attract to itself all that is greatest and noblest on earth - a Teacher who was touched by the sight of our infirmities and who could cry over the grave of His friend. In short, to a world tormented by contradictory beliefs and conflicting philosophical systems, Christianity offered its teachings not as a human invention, but as a divine revelation, confirmed not so much by reason as by faith. “For with the heart they believe unto righteousness”; “Whoever wants to do His will will find out about this teaching, whether it is from God”; “if you don’t believe, you won’t understand”; "truly Christian heart"; “one becomes theologian from the heart” - these expressions best convey the essence of the original impact of Christianity on the world. Like all great religions, Christianity was more concerned with the way of feeling than with the way of thinking. The main reason for the success of Christianity was the conformity of its teachings with the spiritual nature of humanity. Christianity was so deeply rooted in the hearts of people precisely because it exactly corresponded to the moral experiences of the age, because ideally it represented that highest type of perfection to which all people aspired, because it coincided with their religious needs, goals and feelings, and because under his influence the entire spiritual essence of man could freely spread and develop.”

Merivale Convers. of the Rom. Emp., Preface) explains the conversion of the Roman Empire mainly by four reasons: 1) external evidence of the truth of Christianity, expressed in the obvious fulfillment of recorded prophecies and miracles; 2) internal testimony, expressed in the satisfaction of the recognized need for a redeemer and sanctifier; 3) the goodness and holiness of the life and death of the first believers; 4) the temporary success of Christianity under Constantine, « who, through a comprehensive revolution, directed the masses of men towards the rising sun of truth revealed in Christ Jesus.”

Renan discusses the reasons for the victory of Christianity in the thirty-first chapter of his Marcus Aurelius (Renan, Marc–Aurele, Paris 1882, pp. 561–588). He explains it primarily as a “new discipline of life” and “moral reform”, which the world needed and which neither philosophy nor any existing religion could give it. The Jews truly rose high above the wickedness of that era. “Gloire eternelle et unique, qui doit faire oublier bien des folies et des violence! Les Juifs sont les revolutionnaires de 1 er et du 2 e siecle de notre ere". They gave the world Christianity. "Les populations se precipiterent, par une sorte du mouvement instinctif, dans une secte qui satisfaisait leur aspirations les plus intimes et ouvrait des esperances infinies" . Renan emphasizes the belief in the sinfulness of people and the forgiveness offered to every sinner as attractive features of Christianity; like Gibbon, he is oblivious to the real power of Christianity as a religion salvation. And it is this force that explains the success of Christianity not only in the Roman Empire, but also in all other countries and peoples where it spread.

§6. Distribution media

It is a remarkable fact that after the Apostolic period, references to great missionaries disappear until the beginning of the Middle Ages, when the conversion of entire nations was accomplished or begun by individuals such as St. Patrick in Ireland, St. Columba in Scotland, St. Augustine in England, St. Boniface in Germany. , Saint Ansgar in Scandinavia, Saints Cyril and Methodius among the Slavic peoples. In the ante-Nicene period there were no missionary communities, no missionary organizations, no organized attempts at evangelism; however, less than 300 years after the death of St. John, the entire population of the Roman Empire, which represented the civilized world of that era, was nominally converted to Christianity.

In order to comprehend this amazing fact, we must remember that the strong and deep foundations of this process were laid by the apostles themselves. The seed they brought from Jerusalem to Rome and watered with their blood brought forth a bountiful harvest. The word of our Lord was fulfilled again, but on a larger scale: “One sows, and another reaps. I sent you to reap that for which you did not labor: others labored, but you entered into their labor” (John 4:38).

Once established, Christianity itself was its own best preacher. It grew naturally from within. It attracted people by its very existence. It was a light shining in the darkness and dispelling the darkness. And although there were no professional missionaries who would devote their entire lives to this particular ministry, every community was a community of preachers and every Christian believer was a missionary, burning with the love of Christ and eager to convert others. The example was set by Jerusalem and Antioch and those brothers who, after the martyrdom of Stephen, “the scattered ones went and preached the word.” Justin Martyr was converted by a venerable old man whom he met while walking along the seashore. “Every Christian minister,” says Tertullian, “both finds God and reveals Him, although Plato claims that it is not easy to find the Creator, and when He is found, it is difficult to reveal Him to everyone.” Celsus mockingly notes that fullers and tanners, simple and ignorant people, were the most zealous propagandists of Christianity and brought it primarily to women and children. Women and slaves brought him into the family circle. The glory of the gospel was that it was preached to the poor and the needy, making them rich. Origen tells us that the city churches sent missionaries to the villages. The seed sprouted while people were still sleeping and bore fruit - first a stalk, then an ovary, then a full ear. Every Christian told his neighbor the story of his conversion, just as a sailor tells the story of his salvation from a shipwreck: a worker - to someone working next to him, a slave - to another slave, a servant - to his master and mistress.

The gospel was spread mainly through live preaching and personal conversation, although to a large extent also through the sacred Scriptures, which were translated into English from the very beginning. different languages: Latin (North African and Italian translations), Syriac (Kureton's Old Syriac text, Peshito) and Egyptian (into three dialects: Memphian, Thebaidian and Basmurian). Communication between different areas of the Roman Empire, from Damascus to Britain, was relatively simple and safe. The roads built for trade and the movement of the Roman legions also served as evangelists of peace, winning seemingly imperceptible victories for the sake of the Cross. Trade itself, then as now, contributed to the spread of the Gospel and the seed of Christian civilization to the farthest corners of the Roman Empire.

The specific method and exact time of the penetration of Christianity into some countries during this period is largely unknown. We mainly know only the fact of penetration. There is no doubt that the apostles and their immediate disciples did much more than we are told in the New Testament. But, on the other hand, medieval tradition attributes to the apostles the founding of many national and local churches, which could not have arisen earlier than the 2nd or 3rd century. Tradition made even Joseph of Arimathea, Nicodemus, Dionysius the Areopagite, Lazarus, Martha and Mary missionaries in distant countries.

§7. Prevalence of Christianity in the Roman Empire

Justin Martyr, around the middle of the 2nd century, says: “There is no such tribe, Greek or barbarian people, no matter what it is called and no matter what customs it differs in, no matter how poorly acquainted it is with the arts or agriculture, no matter how it lives, in tents or covered wagons, where prayers and thanksgiving would not be offered to the Father and Creator of all things in the name of the crucified Jesus.” And half a century later, Tertullian decisively declares to the pagans: “Yesterday we were not yet there, but today we have already filled all the places that belong to you: cities, islands, fortresses, houses, assemblies, your camp, your tribes and communities, the palace, the Senate, the forum! We left you only your temples." Of course, these two and similar passages from Irenaeus and Arnobius are obvious rhetorical exaggerations. Origen is more cautious and restrained in his statements. However, it can definitely be said that by the end of the 3rd century the name of Christ was known, revered and persecuted in all the provinces and cities of the empire. Maximian, in one of his decrees, says that “almost everyone” abandoned the faith of their ancestors for the sake of the new sect.

In the absence of statistics, we can only speculate about the number of Christians. Probably, at the end of the 3rd and beginning of the 4th centuries, about one tenth or one twelfth of the subjects of Rome, that is, about ten million people, accepted Christ.

But the fact that the Christians were one body, new, strong, hopeful, and growing daily, while the pagans were for the most part disorganized and diminishing in number every day, made the church much stronger in prospect.

The spread of Christianity among the barbarians in the provinces of Asia and northwestern Europe, outside the Roman Empire, at first had no tangible significance due to the great distance of these areas from the places where the main developments took place. historical events, nevertheless, it prepared the way for the penetration of civilization into these regions and determined their subsequent position in the world.

NOTES

Gibbon and Friedlander (III.531) estimate the number of Christians at the beginning of the reign of Constantine (306) as too small, one twentieth of the population; Matter and Robertson are like too many, one-fifth of his subjects. Some writers of yesteryear, bewildered by the exaggerated claims of the ancient apologists, even assert that there were as many Christians in the empire as pagans, or even more. But in this case, a simple precaution would have prompted the policy of toleration to begin long before the accession of Constantine. Mosheim in his Historical Commentaries (Mosheim, Hist. Commentaries, Murdock's translation, I, p. 274 sqq.) analyzes in detail information about the number of Christians in the 2nd century, without, however, coming to definite conclusions. Chastel defines their number in the time of Constantine as one fifteenth in the West, one tenth in the East and one twelfth on average (Hist, de la destruct. du paganisme, p. 36). According to Chrysostom, the Christian population of Antioch in his time (380) was about 100,000, that is, half of the total population.

§8. Christianity in Asia

Asia became not only the cradle of humanity and civilization, but also the cradle of Christianity. The apostles themselves spread the new religion in Palestine, Syria and Asia Minor. According to Pliny the Younger, the temples of the gods in Asia Minor were almost abandoned, and almost no animals were purchased for sacrifice. In the 2nd century, Christianity penetrated into Edessa in Mesopotamia, and also, to some extent, into Persia, Media, Bactria and Parthia; in the 3rd century - to Armenia and Arabia. Paul himself spent three years in Arabia, but most likely in meditative solitude, preparing for his apostolic ministry. There is a legend that the apostles Thomas and Bartholomew brought the Good News to India. But it is more plausible that the Christian teacher Panten of Alexandria traveled to this country about 190 and that churches were founded there in the 4th century.

The transfer of the capital from Rome to Constantinople and the founding of the Eastern Roman Empire under Constantine I led to Asia Minor, and especially Constantinople, playing a leading role in the history of the church for several centuries. Seven ecumenical councils, from 325 to 787, were held in this city or its environs, and doctrinal disputes concerning the Trinity or the Person of Christ were mainly carried on in Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt.

By the will of the mysterious Providence of God, these lands of the Bible and the early church were subsequently captured by the prophet from Mecca, the Bible there was supplanted by the Koran and the Greek Church was doomed to slavery and stagnation; but the times are near when the East will be reborn under the influence of the undying spirit of Christianity. A peaceful crusade of devoted missionaries preaching a pure gospel and living a holy life will reconquer the Holy Land and the Eastern Question will be settled.

§9. Christianity in Egypt

In Africa, Christianity took hold primarily in Egypt, and this probably happened already in the apostolic period. The land of pharaohs, pyramids and sphinxes, temples and tombs, hieroglyphs and mummies, sacred calves and crocodiles, despotism and slavery has been closely associated with sacred history since patriarchal times and is even immortalized in the text of the Ten Commandments under the name “house of slavery.” Egypt was the home of Joseph and his brothers, the cradle of Israel. In Egypt, the Jewish Scriptures were translated into another language more than two hundred years before our era, and this translation into Greek was used even by Christ and His apostles; with its help, Jewish ideas spread throughout the Roman world, and it can be considered the “mother” of the specific language of the New Testament. There were many Jews in Alexandria. It was the literary and commercial center of the East, a link between East and West. The largest library was collected there; there Jewish thinking came into close contact with Greek, and the religion of Moses with the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. Philo wrote there, while Christ taught in Jerusalem and Galilee, and his works, through the Alexandrian church fathers, were destined to have a great influence on Christian exegesis.

An ancient legend says that the Alexandria Church was founded by the Evangelist Mark. The Copts of ancient Cairo, Egyptian Babylon, claim that it was there that Peter wrote his First Epistle (1 Pet. 5:13); but Peter must still either mean Babylon on the Euphrates River, or figuratively call Rome Babylon. Eusebius mentions the names of the first bishops of the Alexandrian Church: Annianus (62 - 85 AD), Avilius (before 98) and Cerdon (before 110). Here we observe a natural growth in the importance and dignity of the city and the patriarchate. Already in the 2nd century, a theological school flourished in Alexandria, taught by Clement and Origen, the first experts in the Bible and Christian philosophy. From Lower Egypt the Gospel spread to Middle and Upper Egypt and the surrounding provinces, possibly (in the 4th century) to Nubia, Ethiopia and Abyssinia. At the Council of Alexandria in 235, twenty bishops from different regions of the Nile country were present.

In the 4th century, Egypt gave the church the Arian heresy, the orthodoxy of Athanasius, and the monastic piety of Saint Anthony and Saint Pachomius, which had a powerful influence on the entire Christian world.

The theological literature of Egypt was mainly in Greek. Most of the early manuscripts of the Greek Scriptures - including the probably priceless Sinaiticus and Vatican manuscripts - were produced in Alexandria. But already in the 2nd century the Scriptures were translated into local languages, three different dialects. What remains of these translations helps us greatly to determine what the original text of the Greek New Testament was.

Egyptian Christians are descendants of Egyptians who obeyed the pharaohs, but with a large admixture of black and Arab blood. Christianity never became a universal faith in this country and was almost exterminated by the Muslims under the Caliph Omar (640), who burned the magnificent libraries of Alexandria, believing that if the contents of the books corresponded to the Koran, then they were useless, if not, then they were harmful and subject to destruction. Since then, Egypt has hardly been mentioned in the history of the church and continues to groan, remaining a house of slavery under new masters. The majority of its population is Muslim, but the Copts - about half a million of the five and a half million inhabitants - continue to call themselves Christians, like their ancestors, and form the mission field for the most active churches in the West.

§10. Christianity in North Africa

Bottiger: Geschichte der Carthager. Berlin 1827.

Movers: Die Phonizier. 1840–56, 4 vols, (exemplary work).

Th. Momsen: Rom. Geschichte, I. 489 sqq. (book III, chs. 1–7, 6th ed.).

N. Davis: Carthage and her Remains. London & N. York 1861.

R. Bosworth Smith: Carthage and the Carthaginians. Lond. 2nd ed. 1879. His same: Rome and Carthage. N. York 1880.

Otto Meltzer: Geschichte der Karthager. Berlin, vol. I. 1879.

These books deal with the secular history of ancient Carthage, but provide insight into the situation and background.

Julius Lloyd: The North African Church. London 1880. Before the Muslim conquest.

The population of the provinces of North Africa was of Semitic origin, their language was similar to Hebrew, but during the period of Roman rule they adopted Latin customs, laws and language. Therefore, the church of this region belongs to Latin Christianity, and it played a leading role in its early history.

The Phoenicians, descendants of the Canaanites, were the English of ancient history. They traded with the whole world, while the Israelites brought faith to the world, and the Greeks brought civilization. Three small nations living in small countries have done more important things than the colossal empires of Assyria, Babylon, Persia or even Rome. The Phoenicians, living on a narrow strip of land along the Syrian coast, between the Lebanese mountains and the sea, sent their trading ships from Tire and Sidon to all regions of the ancient world, from India to the Baltic, rounded the Cape of Good Hope two thousand years before Vasco da Gama and brought back sandalwood from Malabar, spices from Arabia, ostrich feathers from Nubia, silver from Spain, gold from Nigeria, iron from the Elbe, tin from England and amber from the Baltic. They supplied Solomon with cedar wood from Lebanon and helped him build his palace and temple. More than eight hundred years before the birth of Christ, they founded the colony of Carthage on the northern coast of Africa. Thanks to the advantageous location of the colony, they established control over the northern coast of Africa from the Pillars of Hercules to Sirte Major, over southern Spain, the islands of Sardinia and Sicily and everything Mediterranean Sea. Hence the inevitable rivalry between Rome and Carthage, separated from each other by three days' journey by sea; hence the three Punic Wars, which, despite the brilliant military talents of Hannibal, ended with the complete destruction of the capital of North Africa (146 BC). Delenda est Carthago - such was the short-sighted and cruel policy of Cato the Elder. But under Augustus, who carried out the wiser plan of Julius Caesar, a new one arose on the ruins of the former Carthage, it became a rich and prosperous city, first pagan, then Christian, until it was captured by barbarian Vandals (439 A.D.) and finally destroyed by the people , related to its original founders, the Mohammedan Arabs (647). Since then, “sorrowful and devastated silence” has once again reigned over its ruins.

Christianity reached Proconsular Africa in the 2nd century, and possibly as early as the end of the 1st century. We don't know when or how. The area had constant interaction with Italy. The Christian faith spread very quickly across the fertile plains and hot sands of Mauritania and Numidia. Cyprian in 258 was able to assemble a synod of eighty-seven bishops, and in 308 a council of Donatist schismatics was held in Carthage, in which two hundred and seventy bishops participated. Dioceses in those days were, of course, small.

The oldest translation of the Bible into Latin, misnamed Itala(which became the basis for Jerome's Vulgate) was probably written in Africa and for Africa, and not in Rome and for Rome, where Christians at that time spoke predominantly Greek. Latin theology also originated not in Rome, but in Carthage. His father was Tertullian. Minucius Felix, Arnobius and Cyprian testify to the activity and prosperity of African Christianity and theology in the 3rd century. It reached the highest point of its development in the first quarter of the 5th century in the person of St. Augustine, whose great mind and ardent heart make him the greatest of the church fathers, but soon after the death of Augustine (430) it was buried, first under the onslaught of the barbarian Vandals, and then 7th century - Mohammedan. But Augustine's works led Christians in the Latin Church into the Dark Ages, inspired the Reformation, and have life-giving force to this day.

§eleven. Christianity in Europe

"The Empire Moves West."

The laws of history are also the laws of Christianity. The Apostolic Church advanced from Jerusalem to Rome. Then the missionaries moved further and further west.

The Church of Rome was the most significant of all the churches of the West. According to Eusebius, in the middle of the 3rd century it had one bishop, forty-six presbyters, seven deacons and the same number of their assistants, forty-two acoluths, fifty readers, exorcists and gatekeepers, and it cared for one and a half thousand widows and beggars. From this we can conclude that the number of its members was approximately fifty to sixty thousand people, that is about a twentieth of the city's population, the number of which cannot be precisely determined, but which during the reign of Antoninus must have exceeded a million people. The influence of Christianity in Rome is also confirmed by the incredible length of the catacombs where Christians were buried.

From Rome the church spread to all cities of Italy. The first Roman local synod, about which we have information, was attended by twelve bishops under the chairmanship of Telesphorus (142 - 154). In the middle of the 3rd century (255), Cornelius of Rome assembled a council of sixty bishops.

The persecution of 177 shows that by the 2nd century the church had already taken root in southern Gaul. Christianity probably came there from the East, because the churches of Lyon and Vienne were closely connected with the churches of Asia Minor, to which they reported the persecutions that had befallen them, and Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons, was a disciple of Polycarp of Smyrna. Gregory of Tours claims that in the middle of the 3rd century seven missionaries were sent from Rome to Gaul. One of them, Dionysius, founded the first church in Paris, died a martyr's death in Montmartre and became the patron saint of France. Popular tradition later combined his image with that of Dionysius the Areopagite, converted by Paul in Athens.

Spain probably became acquainted with Christianity in the 2nd century, although we do not find clear evidence of the existence of churches and bishops in it until the middle of the 3rd century. Nineteen bishops participated in the Council of Elvira in 306. The Apostle Paul planned to make a missionary journey to Spain and, according to Clement of Alexandria, preached there, if we understand this country as the “western border”, where, according to him, Paul brought the Good News. But we have no evidence of his activities in Spain. Tradition, contrary to all chronology, asserts that Christianity was brought to this country by the elder James, who was executed in Jerusalem in 44, and that he is buried in Campostela, a famous place of pilgrimage, where his bones were discovered already in the reign of Alphonse Alphonse II [Alphonse II ] II, at the end of the 8th century.

When Irenaeus spoke of preaching the Gospel among the Germans and other barbarians, who, "having no paper or ink, carry in their hearts the salvation sealed by the Holy Spirit," he was referring only to those parts of Germany that belonged to the Roman Empire (Germania cisrhenana).

According to Tertullian, Britain also submitted to the power of the cross at the end of the 2nd century. The Celtic Church existed in England, Ireland and Scotland independently of Rome long before the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons by the Roman mission of Augustine; it continued to exist for some time after this, spreading in Germany, France and the Netherlands, but ultimately merged with the Roman Church. She probably originated from Gaul, and then from Italy. Tradition traces its history back to St. Paul and the other founding apostles. Bede the Venerable (died 735) says that the British king Lucius (about 167) asked the Roman bishop Eleuther to send him missionaries. At the Council of Arles, in Gaul, in 314, there were three British bishops present - from Eboracum (York), Londinium (London) and the colony of Londinensium (either Lincoln or, more likely, Colchester).

The conversion of the barbarians of Northern and Western Europe began in full only in the 5th - 6th centuries, and we will talk about it when we consider the history of the Middle Ages.

Phoenician or Punic name - Karthada, Greek - Karchedon(?????????), Latin Carthago. This means New City (lat."Naples"). Word Kereth or Carth is also part of the names of other cities of Phoenician origin, for example, Cirta(Cirta) in Numidia.

See the scholarly comparison of Rome and Carthage in Mommsen, Book III, ch. 1 (vol. I. 506), on the destruction of Carthage see: Book IV, ch. 1. (vol. II. 22 sqq.).

"Carthage must be destroyed." - Approx. ed.

For a description of the ruins of Carthage, see N. Davis and W. Smith (Rome and Carthage, ch. xx. 263–291). The recent conquest of Tunisia by France (1881) aroused new interest in the past of this country and opened a new page in its future. Smith describes Tunisia as the easternmost of the eastern cities, in which an impressive mixture of peoples - Arabs, Turks, Moors and blacks - are united together by the Islamic religion.

Gibbon in the thirty-first chapter and Milman estimate the population of Rome at 1,200,000; Heck (based on the Ancyrian inscription), Zumpt and Howson - two million; Bahnsen is slightly smaller; and Dureau de la Malle believes that it was only half a million, on the ground that the walls of Sergius Tullius surrounded an area of ​​only one-fifth of the territory of Paris. But these walls no longer marked the boundaries of the city, because when it was rebuilt after the fire of Nero, the suburbs extended beyond the walls into an unlimited territory. See vol. I, p. 359.

Rome. 15:24; Clem. R. Ad Cor., p. 5 (?? ????? ??? ??????).

See J. B. Gams (R. C): Die Kirchengeschichte von Spanien, Regensburg 1862–1879, 5 vols. The first volume (422 pages) is devoted to the legendary history of the first three centuries of the church. 75 pages are devoted to a discussion of Paul's journey to Spain. Gamay declares the founders of Christianity in this country to be Paul and the seven disciples of the apostles sent to Rome, namely, Torquatus, Ctesiphon, Secundus, Indaletius, Catsilia, Hesychius and Euphrasius (according to the Roman Martyrology, published by Baronius, 1586).

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Spread of Christianity in the world

christianity state religion

OriginChristianity.Build,branchingfaith

In the second half of the 1st century and the first half of the 2nd century, Christianity represented a number of communities consisting of slaves, freedmen, and artisans. In the second half of the 2nd century, Christian writers already noted the presence of noble and wealthy people in the communities. One of the important elements of the transition of Christianity to fundamentally new level was his break with Judaism in the 2nd century. After this, the percentage of Jews in Christian communities began to steadily decrease. At the same time, Christians abandoned the Old Testament laws. Expansion of Christianity and involvement in Christian communities large quantity the people themselves different religions led to the fact that Christianity of this period was not a single church, but a huge number of directions, groupings, and theological schools. The situation was complicated by a large number of heresies, the number of which by the end of the 2nd century, the church historian of the end of the 4th century, Philastrius, puts the number at 156. In the second half of the 3rd century, a process of further centralization of the church took place, and by the beginning of the 4th century, several metropolises emerged from the existing dioceses, each of which united a group dioceses. Naturally, large church centers were created in the most important political centers of the empire, primarily in the capitals.

At the beginning of the 4th century, Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire. At this time, the church organization is strengthened and the church hierarchy is formalized, the highest and most privileged part of which is the episcopate. The emerging church organization, headed by influential bishops who constantly maintained contact with each other and gathered for their congresses (councils), grew into a major political force in the Roman Empire.

StrengtheningfaithVRomanEmpire

The imperial power, sensing a dangerous rival in it, tried to destroy it in the context of a fierce class struggle during the crisis in the 3rd century. Emperor Decius (249-251) began persecuting Christians. Persecution continued under Valerian (253-260), and intensified significantly under Diocletian (284-305). The persecution did not break the Christian church organization, and its ineffectiveness showed that the new religion had a significant mass base. As the imperial power learned the essence of Christian ideology, the nature and significance of church activities, it became increasingly convinced that Christianity was a force that was capable of sanctifying the power of rulers and ensuring the obedience of the masses. Therefore, the empire gradually moves from attempts to break the church organization that seemed dangerous to it to a policy aimed at putting this organization into its service. At the beginning of the 4th century, when a fierce struggle for imperial power unfolded, the importance of the Christian Church increased even more. This was taken into account by Emperor Constantine I, who switched to a policy of relying on the church. Christianity was declared an officially permitted religion, and property previously confiscated for the benefit of the treasury was returned to the church.

Thus, the beginning of the transformation of Christianity into the state religion was laid; in the world empire a world religion was established. In 325, the emperor convened the first “Ecumenical Council” (Nicaea), consisting of representatives of the church elite. At the council, the “Creed” was developed - a brief statement of the main dogmas of the Christian religion. At the council, the union of the church with the imperial power was formalized. The Church recognized the emperor as its head, the representative of Christ on earth. Soon after the death of Constantine (in 337), he was distinguished by extreme cruelty, staining himself with many murders, incl. After killing his son, wife and many relatives, the church declared him a saint. During his lifetime, Constantine himself did not break with paganism. An attempt under one of Constantine’s successors, Emperor Julian (361-363), who received the nickname “Apostate” from Christians, to return to paganism was unsuccessful: the time of the ancient religions of the ancient world had passed irrevocably. Emperor Theodosius I (379-395) ordered the closure of pagan temples. 3. Propagation of faith in the World.

AttemptsadoptionfaithGotamiAndVandals

In 375, the Gothic king Vinitarius unexpectedly attacked the Ant Slavs, executing their leader Busa with his sons and 70 elders. The painful execution of the Slavs was more like a sacrifice. They were crucified. As for Christian vandals, their religious fanaticism even entered everyday speech - vandalism. They proved their Christianity by the ruthless destruction of Roman pagan culture. In 496 the Franks converted to Christianity according to the Roman model. Their king, Clovis, was also baptized with him and 3,000 soldiers. The adoption of the new faith did not tame the morals of the Franks. Clovis nevertheless continued to exterminate his rivals. Long decades of fratricidal wars between the Goths and Franks exhausted these related Germanic tribes. Kagal introduced such a complicated religion that it seemed specifically designed to give rise to currents fighting among themselves, involving other nations in bloody wars.

AdoptionGreatArmeniafaith

At the beginning of the 4th century, Greater Armenia became the first country to adopt Christianity as a state religion.

ComingfaithonterritoryNorthernScotland

In 560 Christianity came to Northern Scotland. Around the same time, it was accepted by pawnshop residents of Northern Italy, and on the shores of Leman - Lake Geneva - the Christian state of Burgundy arose.

In 598, the Anglo-Saxon king Ethelbert of Kent converted to Christianity and chose Canterbury as his capital.

AcceptancefaithVsomecountriesterritoriesnorthernEurope

In 630, Flanders (the old name of Belgium) and the Netherlands joined the Christian world, a little later - Bavaria.

In the 8th century, English monasteries began to produce zealous preachers of Christianity who went to the European mainland. One of them was Bishop Boniface, the founder of the first monasteries in Germany. In Hesse, he personally cut down the oak tree of the god Wotan, “to show the powerlessness of the demon.” The majority accepted christian god, but only recognized his primacy over others and secretly continued to honor their gods. Carried away by his zeal to spread the Christian faith, Boniface eventually played out. At the age of 75, he went to preach Christianity in the Frisian country (northeast Holland). In the tent where he was waiting for converts, he was overtaken by pagans hostile to him and finished him off in 755. But in the 9th century, baptism spread to all of Germany.

A little earlier, Christianity established itself in Franconia (the region of the eastern Franks).

In 772, King Charles began converting the North German Saxon tribe to Christianity. They steadfastly clung to paganism, protecting their independence in it. Kakrl began by cutting down the huge Irmensul tree, which the pagans called “the support of the universe.” The Saxons, scattered across regions and villages, did not offer resistance while the Frankish army was in their country. But as soon as Charles left, they destroyed churches and expelled bishops.

Both heirs of Rome - the Christian empire of Charles and Byzantium continued the Christianization of freedom-loving peoples. King Charles was called the “Great” by the church because, invading foreign lands of the Danube and Baltic Slavs, he exterminated them without exception, sparing no one: neither women, nor children, nor the elderly. The very nature of the attack was similar to the Old Testament punitive wars. Throughout his life, Charles made more than 50 campaigns, of which only 2 ended in defeat. The Velet tribe became especially famous in the fight against Christians. The Byzantine Emperor Justinian II destroyed the independent Slavic state of Sclavinia in the Balkans.

AttemptbaptismfirstRusov

In 860, the Greek Askold baptized the first Russians in Kyiv. But Christianity has not yet become widespread in Kyiv and its environs. In 882, after the “baptism of Rus'”, the “de-baptism of Rus'” took place. It is known that Svyatoslav’s mother, Princess Olga, was a Christian. And Askold, and Dir, and Olga - all were baptized in Byzantium. However new faith Rus' had not yet been born.

SpreadingreligiononterritoriesBalkans

In 863, the Moravian prince Rostislav was baptized. Moravia was filled with “enlighteners.” Following Rostislav, Christianity spread to the Czech lands, where Borzhivoy reigned.

In 864, there was a crop failure in Bulgaria. Diseases leading to pestilence were added to famine. The helpful Byzantines convinced the Bulgarian Tsar Boris that the famine occurred “for sins.” And to reinforce their words, in order to further convince the king to accept the “light of true teaching,” they brought their troops into the country and forced the Bulgarians to be baptized.

In the late 60s of the 9th century, Christianity spread to Serbia and Croatia. By the 10th century, the Black Croats, Horutans (Slovenians), Taurian Rus, as well as the Don Slavs were subjugated to Christianity.

StatementfaithVPoland

In Poland, Christianity was established in 966 under Prince Mieszko I (963-992). While Poland remained a pagan country, it flourished. Having converted to Christianity under Pope John XIII (965-972), she fell into poverty. Mieszko ordered the destruction of the idols that he had so fervently worshiped before, confiscated the property of his subjects who continued to stubbornly defend the old faith, and ordered some of them to be sent to the stake. This fanatic, an obedient instrument in the hands of the high priest, donated considerable sums to the Holy See for the construction of new churches. Unhappy Poland was plundered, plundered, and ruined in the name of the interests of the Roman court. Prince Mieszko divided the Slavs into Western and Eastern. Polish lands came under the protection of the Pope.

BaptismRus'

In 988, Prince Vladimir began his long-planned goal - the baptism of Rus'. For the fourth time, starting with Askold. In the “Church Charter of St. Vladimir” dated 989, the punishment for sorcerers and witches is provided for - burning at the stake. The very nature of Christianization and Vladimir’s punitive campaigns again resembled the Old Testament genocide.

IntroductionfaithVNorwayAndSweden

In Norway, Christianity was spread by King Tryggvi. His son, and later king Olaf Trygvesson (997-1000), will continue his father’s work. The first wave of baptism did not produce results. Everywhere attempts to introduce a new religion were resolutely rejected by the people. The Norwegian king Hakon the Good, who ruled in the middle of the 10th century, offered to be baptized and was decisively refused by us, we will abandon you and choose another leader who will rule us in such a way that we can freely profess the faith that we want. "Olaf Trygvesson by force of arms introduces Christianity and humbles the people.

In Sweden, Christianity was adopted by King Olof Skötkonung in 1008; it was finally established only in 1248, and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania remained generally pagan until the end of the 14th century.

The Western and Eastern churches acted independently and independently of each other. The Western one drew into its circle of influence all the Roman and Germanic peoples, including the Slavs - Croats, Czechs and Poles. Eastern - Bulgarians, Serbs and Russians. Between these large areas there remained a small area that Christians had not reached - the lands lying east of the Baltic Sea, between the lower Vistula and the Gulf of Finland. There were pagan Finnish Estonian tribes and Lithuanian-Latvian tribes. But after 1200, Christianization overtook them too.

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In the II-III centuries. social conditions and the socio-psychological situation led to an increase in the number of Christians among not only wealthy people, but also those who occupied a high position in society.

A very important factor for the development and spread of Christian doctrine was the appearance among Christians in the 2nd century. educated people familiar with Greco-Roman philosophy and science.

Theoretical works begin to appear that substantiate the advantages of Christian doctrine (so-called apologies). The first apology known to us was created around the middle of the 2nd century. by a certain Aristides from Athens. Among the first Christian theologians of the 2nd - 3rd centuries. highly educated people predominated.

In the second half of the 2nd century. A school of Christian theology was created in Alexandria, headed at one time by Clement and then by Origen. All these people participated in the formation of Christian theology, developed the attitude of Christianity towards ancient culture, criticizing it and at the same time borrowing a lot from it. Their activities, in turn, attracted more and more educated people to Christians, who ceased to see in Christianity only a harmful superstition, as it seemed to the writers of the early 2nd century.

In the II-III centuries. Christianity began to penetrate the villages. The spread of Christianity in various segments of the population led to changes and complication of Christian doctrine. On the one hand, the educated elite created Christian philosophy and theology, which is not always understandable to the majority of believers; on the other hand, the lower classes of the population, especially from rural areas, where traditional local beliefs were strong, introduced elements of pagan ideas into Christianity, combining the features of their local deities with the image of the Christian god.

In the II-III centuries. Christianity spread not only among different segments of the population of the empire, but also in different provinces. At the beginning of the 2nd century. as before, the largest number of Christians was in Asia Minor and Syria; on the Balkan Peninsula during this period, Christian communities were known only in a few cities (Corinth, Philippi, Thessalonica). In the II century. Christians appear in Northern Mesopotamia. During the 2nd century. separate Christian communities appear in the southern regions of Egypt - Akhmim, Asyut, Henoboskion.

From the 2nd century The first monks appear in Egypt (the word "monk" means "lonely"). In solitude, these people sought to “free themselves” from the world of evil and find that state of mind that would provide them with a mystical merger with the deity.

Also in the 2nd century. the number of Christians in Rome increases markedly. Information about Christianity in the western provinces appears only from the second half of the 2nd century.

By the beginning of the 4th century. bishops are known (and, therefore, there were Christian communities) in Arles, Vaison, Lutetia (Paris), Trier, Reims and some other cities. In Gaul, Christianity spread primarily among the urban population; first among alien settlers (as happened in the east at one time), and then the Gallo-Roman population, who spoke Latin, began to join it. From Gaul, Christian preachers entered Britain. However, Christianity spread slowly in this province: at the beginning of the 4th century. Only three bishops from Britain arrived at the council of bishops convened in Arles (Gaul). The fragility of Christianity in this province is also evident from the fact that the invasion of the Anglo-Saxon tribes into Britain practically destroyed it there; it appeared on this island again only in the 6th century.

Probably, Christian preachers came to Spain from Italy or Gaul.

The Christians of North Africa occupy a much more important place in the history of Christianity. Perhaps Christianity appeared in this Roman province primarily among Jewish settlers, and then spread among the local and Roman population. It was North African Christians who created the first Latin-language Christian writings.

The earliest written mentions of Christians in North Africa are associated, as in Gaul, with persecution of them. At the end of the 2nd century. (about 180) Christians from the small Numidian town of Scilia were sentenced to execution.

By the beginning of the 3rd century. Christianity in North Africa spread quite widely: in 220 there were already 70 bishops there. One of the largest Christian writers of the turn of the 2nd - 3rd centuries. Tertullian was a native of North Africa.

In the II-III centuries. Christianity spread among different social groups and various nationalities of the Roman Empire. In the process of spreading, Christianity could not help but undergo changes both in its doctrine and in its organization. The main content of the ideological development of Christianity in the 2nd century. there was an awareness of it as a new religious teaching, opposing both the polytheistic religions of the ancient world and Judaism. Christian dogma, ethics, and aesthetics were developed, and scriptures were selected that were recognized as sacred. Parallel to this process and in close connection with it, a church organization was emerging that was the opposite of the ancient religious community, based on the authority of the prophets who preached revelations and the apostles who repeated the oral tradition, which, according to them, went back to Jesus himself.