Themes of archeology. Archeology is divided into many different types. Plan for the characteristics of the archaeological culture
Moscow Committee of Education
MOSCOW CITY PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY
History department
Krykin S. M., Krykina O. V.
Fundamentals of archeology
PROGRAM
Reviewer: head. Department of the History of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages, Moscow State Pedagogical University (MPGU - MGPI named after V. I. Lenin), prof., doctor of science n. Dvoretskaya I. A.
The program on the basics of archeology is designed to teach the course of this discipline at the full-time department of the history department of the Moscow City Pedagogical University. It was created and tested at the Department of the History of World Civilizations of the Moscow State Pedagogical University during all ten years of its existence. This program is a revised version of the 2001 sample program using the experience of teaching the basics of archeology at the Faculty of History of Moscow State University (Historical Education. Programs of General Courses. Ed. S.P. Karpov. M.,: MSU, 1998).
In the process of conducting seminars, first of all, gaps in the subject of lectures should be filled, since, for example, there is an excess of literature in libraries on Slavic-Russian archeology or on the ancient colonies of the Northern Black Sea region and in terms of quality these materials are much easier to master than on the topics of the Stone Ages. Some topics may well be mastered optionally and will offer students separate questions for self-referencing. The course on the fundamentals of archeology is designed to prepare students for participation in field archaeological practice - a visual acquaintance with the most objective historical sources - the data of this science.
Subject and methods of archaeological research. Variety of archaeological sites. settlements and necropolises. Archaeological periodization. Methods of dating, their originality and quality. Organization of archaeological research in modern conditions. Pages of the history of Russian archeology. Period of collecting and random excavations. Formation of a scientific approach during excavations of monuments of the past. Establishment of museums, scientific societies. The most prominent scientists of pre-revolutionary times. Special Editions of the Archaeological Societies.
Topic 2: Paleolithic.
Periodization and chronology of the Paleolithic. The beginning of the study of the Paleolithic in Russia. The specifics of Paleolithic archeology. Paleolithic of the CIS - periodization and chronology of the Paleolithic. The beginning of the study of the Paleolithic in Russia. The specifics of Paleolithic archeology. Paleolithic of the CIS - representation of epochs and main monuments.
Topic 3: Mesolithic.
Isolation of the Mesolithic era. Features of the material culture of the Mesolithic complexes. Main economic features and probable social structure of the Mesolithic groups. Chronological position of the Mesolithic. Mesolithic in Russia, the history of its study, the main monuments in the CIS.
Topic 4: Neolithic CIS.
The scientific concept of "Neolithic". The invention of ceramics. The idea of the "Neolithic Revolution". Local chronologies of the Neolithic. Neolithic of the center of the Russian Plain. Upper Volga culture. Varieties of ceramics. Arsenal of tools and household items. Dwellings. Lyalovo culture. area of culture. The specificity of ceramics, tools and household items. Features of economic activity. Volosovo culture - the population of Russian forests of the final phase of the Neolithic and Eneolithic.
Topic 5: Eneolithic of the CIS.
The allocation of the Eneolithic era is the definition of the phase of development of material culture. The role of metal, the range of the first copper tools and objects. Degradation of stone tools. Intensive development of the producing economy. Accompanying cultural changes. The first cultural Eneolithic zones in the CIS. The era of early metal in Karelia is a specificity of the northern region. The Trypillia culture is the specificity of the forest-steppe. The Srednestog culture is the border of forest-steppes and steppes. The ancient pit cultural and historical region is the steppes. Afanasiev culture in Southern Siberia.
Topic 6: Age of Bronze.
The Bronze Age, its regional periodizations in accordance with natural conditions and resources. Eneolithic and Bronze Age of the Russian Plain. Specificity of Neolithic traditions. Volosovo culture: hunters and fishermen with the beginnings of a productive economy. Early Bronze Age of the forest zone of the European part of Russia: the Corded Ware culture and the Fatyanovo culture. Late Bronze Age - Abashevskaya culture of forest-steppes. The Bronze Age of Transcaucasia and the Caucasus. Kuro-Arak culture, its attribution. Occupations, life and culture of the Kuro-Araks. Middle Bronze Trialetian culture. Economic and technological achievements of the population of Transcaucasia in the III-II millennium BC. e. Early Bronze Maikop culture. Achievements and specifics of the proto-civilization of the Maykopians. Dolmen culture.
Topic 7: Early Iron Age of Transcaucasia.
Development of iron in Transcaucasia. Early Iron Age of Colchis. Occupations, life and culture of the ancient Colchians. Urartu. Cities and fortresses of the Urartians. Agriculture and crafts.
Topic 8: Transcaucasia VI century. BC e. - IV century. n. e.
Armenia VI-IV centuries. BC e. Traditions of the Urartians and innovations in economic activity and culture. Armenia in III-I centuries BC e., its material culture according to archeology. Armenia in the I-III centuries: original beginnings and Roman influence. Colchis in the IV-I centuries. BC e. Ashers and Vanya. Economic activity and culture of the Kolkhs. Hellenistic cultural influence. Colchis in the I-IV centuries. BC e. Own traditions of the Colchians, the influence of Rome and Iberia.
Topic 9: Archeology of the Scythians and Sarmatians.
Early Iron Age of the Black Sea steppes. traditions of the Indo-Iranian world. Mystery of the Cimmerians. Scythians of the Dnieper region, their settlements and burial mounds. The social appearance of the early Scythians. Scythians on the Lower Don (Elizabeth settlement and necropolis). Late Scythian kingdom in Crimea: early and late Crimean Scythians, their historical fates. Sarmatians are Eastern Iranians related to the Scythians. Sauromatian (Blumenfeld) culture. Prokhorovskaya Early Sarmatian culture. Middle Sarmatian Suslov culture. Late Sarmatians - Alans.
Topic 10: Steppes of Eurasia in the Middle Ages.
Nomads of the era of the Great Migration of Nations. Huns and early Turks. Proto-Bulgarians. Saltovo-Mayak culture. Khazars and Bulgarians in the steppes and forest-steppes of Eastern Europe. General and regional features of the culture and life of the Saltovites within their statehood. Volga Bulgaria is an independent state and territory under the rule of the Golden Horde. Features of economic activity and culture of the Volga Bulgarians. The Golden Horde is a historical concept. The cities of the Golden Horde are a fusion of eastern and western cultural components.
Practical lessons.
Topic 1. Introduction, subject and tasks of archeology.
The place of archeology among other sciences.
Types of archaeological sites.
Basic methods of archaeological research.
Ways of dating finds and monuments.
Archeology in Russia. Leading Russian archaeologists.
Literature:
Avdusin D. A. Archeology of the USSR. M., 1977.
Avdusin D. A. Archaeological exploration and excavations. M., 1959.
Avdusin D. A. Field archeology of the USSR. M., 1980.
Blavatsky V. D. Antique field archeology. M., 1967.
Dikshit S. K. Introduction to archeology. M., 1960.
Doel L. Flight into the past. M., 1979.
Malinova R., Malina Ya. A jump into the past. M., 1988.
Martynov A. I., Sher Ya. A. Methods of archaeological research. M., 1989.
Mongait A. L. Archeology in the USSR. M., 1955.
Topic 2: Facts, riddles and secrets of archeology.
The most important reports on the achievements of world archeology.
The most famous archaeologists of the planet.
History of world archeology.
Popular about archeology - the best in Russian.
Christian archeology.
Literature:
Amalrik A. A., Mongait A. L. In search of lost civilizations. M., 1966.
Archeology of foreign Asia. M., 1984.
Belyaev L.A. Christian Antiquities. M., 1998.
Grakov B. N. Early Iron Age. M., 1977.
Carter G. Tomb of Tutankhamun. M., 1959.
Keram K. V. Gods, tombs, scientists (any ed.).
Keram K. V. The first American. M., 1979.
Kruglikova I. T. Antique archeology. M., 1984.
Masson V. M. First civilizations. L., 1976.
Merpert N. Ya. Essays on the archeology of biblical countries. M., 2000.
Formozov A. A. Pages of the history of Russian archeology. M., 1986.
Topic 3: Archeology of the Stone Age.
Relics of the Stone Age - the specifics of the sources.
Study of the Stone Age in Russia.
Paleolithic, its monuments in the territory of the CIS.
Mesolithic in the CIS.
Neolithic Russia and the CIS.
Literature:
Abramova Z.A. Paleolithic Art in the USSR. M.-L., 1962.
Mesolithic USSR. M., 1989.
Obydennov M. F., Korepanov K. I. Art of the Urals and Kama region. Ufa, 1997. Part 1. Ch. 1.
Fundamentals of archeology. M., 1995. Sec. 2.
Paleolithic USSR. M., 1984.
Formozov A. A. The beginning of the study of the Stone Age in Russia. M., 1983.
Topic 4: Archeology of the Bronze Age.
Eneolithic communities and cultures in the CIS.
The Early Bronze Age.
The Middle Bronze Age - the main cultures and monuments.
Cultures and monuments of the Late Bronze Age.
Literature:
Archeology of the Ukrainian SSR. Kyiv, 1985. T. 1. Part 3, 4.
Fundamentals of archeology. M., 1995. Sec. 3.
The Bronze Age of the Caucasus and Central Asia. Early and Middle Bronze Age of the Caucasus. M., 1994.
The Bronze Age of the forest zone of the USSR. M., 1987.
Topic 5: Early Iron Age.
Urartu and ancient Armenia.
Early Iron Age of the forest zone of the CIS countries.
Scythian civilization.
Sauromatians and Sarmatians.
Antique Northern Black Sea Region:
policies of the North-Western Black Sea region;
Chersonese and its choir;
ancient Bosporus.
Early states of Central Asia and Siberia.
Literature:
Ancient states of the Northern Black Sea region. M., 1984.
Archeology of the Ukrainian SSR. Kyiv, 1985. T. 2.
Ancient states of the Caucasus and Central Asia. M., 1985.
Kruglikova I. T. Antique archeology. M., 1985.
Kutaisov V. A. The ancient city of Kerkinitida. Kyiv, 1990.
Fundamentals of archeology. M., 1995. Sec. 4-6.
Steppes of the European part of the USSR in the Scythian-Sarmatian time. M., 1989.
The steppe zone of the Asian part of the USSR in the Scythian-Sarmatian time. M., 1992.
The origin of the Slavs according to archaeological data.
Pre-Mongol Rus:
Kievan Rus;
Novgorod and Pskov.
Vladimir-Suzdal Rus;
Old Ryazan;
Rus' and the Vikings (to the question of the "Norman" theory).
Steppe nomads are the neighbors of Rus'.
Finno-Ugrians and Balts of the Middle Ages.
Khazar Khaganate.
Volga Bulgaria.
Golden Horde.
Russian lands of the XIII - XV centuries.
Old Moscow according to archeology.
Literature:
Archaeological study of Novgorod. M., 1978.
Archeology of the Ukrainian SSR. Kyiv, 1985. T. 3.
Bulkin V. A., Dubov I. V., Lebedev G. S. Archaeological sites of Ancient Rus'
IX-XI centuries. L., 1978.
Byrnya P.P., Pockmarked T.F. Monumental architecture of the Golden Horde city of the XIV century. Shehr al-Jedid // Russian Archeology (RA). 1997. No. 2. S. 91-103.
Darkevich V.P., Borisevich V.P. The ancient capital of the Ryazan land. M., 1995.
Ancient Russian cities. M., 1981.
Old Russian principalities of the 10th - 13th centuries. M., 1975.
Ancient Slavs and Kievan Rus. Kyiv, 1989.
Ancient Novgorod. Applied art and archeology. M., 1985.
Ancient Rus'. City, castle, village. M., 1985.
Dubov IV Archaeological study of the cities of North-Eastern Rus' // City and state in ancient societies. L., 1982. S. 106-126.
History and culture of the ancient Russian city. M., 1989.
Kazakov E.P. On the ethno-cultural components of the peoples of Eastern Europe in the Volga Bulgaria (based on archaeological materials) // Tatarskaya archeology. Kazan, 1997. No. 1. S. 61-77.
Karger M. K. Ancient Kyiv. M.-L., 1958-61. T. 1-2.
Kakhovsky B.V. On the paganism of the Volga Bulgarians (according to archaeological data) // New research in archeology and ethnography of Chuvashia. Cheboksary, 1983. S. 26-42.
Lebedev G.S. The Viking Age in Northern Europe. L., 1985.
Mongait A. L. Old Ryazan. M., 1955.
Mongait A. L. Ryazan land. M., 1961.
Fundamentals of archeology M., 1995.
Essays on the history of the culture of the Slavs. M., 1996. Part 1. Essay 1., Part 2. Essay 1.
Problems of the ethnogenesis of the Slavs. Kyiv, 1978.
Rabinovich M. G. About ancient Moscow. M., 1964.
Rusanova I.P., Timoshchuk B.A. Pagan sanctuaries of the ancient Slavs. M., 1993.
Rybakov B. A. Antiquities of Chernigov. M., 1949.
Rybakov B. A. Paganism of the ancient Slavs. M., 1981.
Slavs and their neighbors in the first half of the 1st millennium AD. e. M., 1993.
Slavs and Rus' (in foreign historiography). Kyiv, 1990.
Sedov V.V. Eastern Slavs in the VI - XIII centuries. M., 1982.
Sedov VV Origin and early history of the Slavs. M., 1979.
Sedov V.V. Slavs in the Early Middle Ages. M., 1995.
Steppes of Eurasia in the Middle Ages. M., 1981.
Tretyakov P.N. East Slavic tribes. M., 1953.
Tretyakov P.N. In the footsteps of ancient Slavic tribes. L., 1982.
Tymoshchuk B. A. East Slavic community VI - X centuries. n. e. M., 1990.
Fedorov-Davydov G. A. Some results of the study of the cities of the Golden Horde on the Lower Volga // Tatar Archeology. Kazan. 1997. No. 1. S. 88-100.
Finno-Ugrians and Balts in the Middle Ages. M., 1987.
Yushko A. A. Moscow lands of the IX-XIV centuries. M., 1991.
Topic 7: Archeology of the New World.
Man's conquest of America.
Civilizations of Mesoamerica.
pre-Hispanic South America.
Literature:
Bashilov V. A. Ancient civilizations of Peru and Bolivia. M., 1972.
Galich M. History of pre-Columbian civilizations. M., 1990.
Gulyaev V.I. Archeology of Central America. M., 1992.
Gulyaev V.I. Riddles of perished civilizations. M., 1992.
Ancient civilizations M., 1989. Ch. 19.
Ershova GG Ancient America: flight in time and space.
*Mesoamerica. M., 2002.
**North America. South America. M., 2002.
Lamberg-Karlovsky K., Sablov J. Ancient civilizations. Near East and Mesoamerica. M., 1992. Ch. 4.
Masson V. M. First civilizations. L., 1989. Part 2. Ch. 1, 7.
Sodi D. Great cultures of Mesoamerica. M., 1985
Stingl M. Secrets of Indian pyramids. M., 1978.
Topic 8: Medieval Crimea.
Ethnocultural appearance of the medieval Crimea.
Medieval Kherson.
Doros, Crimean Gothia, Mangup and Theodoro.
Genoese, Armenian, Tatar settlements.
Crimean Khazars.
Literature:
Baranov I. A. Taurica in the Early Middle Ages. Kyiv, 1990.
Weimarn E., Choref M. "Ship" on Kutch. Simferopol, 1976
Drachuk V., Kara Ya., Chelyshev Yu. Kerkinitida - Gyozlev - Evpatoria. Simferopol, 1973.
Dombrovsky O., Makhneva O. Capital of the Theodorites. Simferopol, 1973.
Dombrovsky O., Sidorenko V. Solkhat and Surb-Khach. Simferopol, 1978.
Dombrovsky O., Stolbunov A., Baranov I. Ayu-Dag - "Holy" mountain. Simferopol, 1975.
Crimea, the North-Eastern Black Sea region and Transcaucasia in the Middle Ages: IV-XIII centuries. M., 2003. Part 1.
Materials on archeology and ethnography of Tavria. Issue. 1-7. Simferopol, 1990 etc.
Pioro I. S. Crimean Gothia. Kyiv, 1990.
Black Sea region in the Middle Ages. M., 1991.
Topic 9: Ancient Civilizations of the Old World.
Ancient civilization of Egypt.
Ancient Civilizations of the Near East.
Ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia.
Civilizations of ancient Asia Minor.
Ancient India.
Ancient China.
Literature:
Archeology of foreign Asia. M., 1986.
ancient civilizations. M., 1989.
Clark J.D. Prehistoric Africa. M., 1978.
Lamberg-Karlovsky K., Sablov J. Ancient civilizations. Near East and Mesoamerica. M., 1992.
Lloyd Seton. Archeology of Mesopotamia. M., 1984.
Masson V. M. First civilizations. L., 1989.
Mellart J. Ancient civilizations of the Middle East. M., 1982.
Plan of characteristics of archaeological culture.
Distribution area.
Chronological framework and stages of development.
Types of archaeological sites that represent the culture, their topography.
Characteristics of the clothing complex of archaeological culture:
tools,
dishes,
military Equipment,
decorations,
cult items.
Characteristics of settlements (planning, fortifications, dwelling design, urban economy).
Characteristics of the necropolises (layout, burial rite, burial structure, position and orientation of the skeleton, complexes of grave goods, traces of rites associated with burial - funeral feasts, funeral sacrifices).
Characteristics of the economy (agriculture, cattle breeding, hunting, gathering, fishing, craft, trade).
Art and religious performances.
Ethnic identification of the carriers of the archaeological culture (if possible).
Abstract requirements.
1. Registration.The abstract can be executed both in printed form and by hand. By hand, the volume of the abstract should be about 30-40 pages, written in a clear legible handwriting.
In printed form, the optimal amount of the abstract is 25-35 pages, provided that the text has the following parameters:
font 14 Times New Roman (or 13 Arial), line spacing 1.5 pt, margins: 2 cm top, right and left, 2.5 cm bottom
The main requirement that determines the scope of work is that the topic should be disclosed in the most satisfactory way.
2. Composition of the abstract:
title page,
list of sources and/or literature used,
The main text of the abstract should consist of an introduction, the main part, divided into paragraphs, and a conclusion, the pages should be numbered in order.
3. Making lists of sources and literature
The titles of publications are arranged alphabetically and are given in accordance with the rules of a small bibliographic description, first a list of sources, then literature, for example:
Written sources:
Herodotus. History / Per. and approx. G. A. Stratanovsky. M., 1993.
Homer. Iliad / Per. N. I. Gnedich. L., 1990.
Homer. Odyssey / Per. V. Zhukovsky. M., 1981.
Xenophon. Greek history / Per. S. Lurie. SPb., 1993.
Thucydides. History / Per. F. G. Mishchenko and S. A. Zhebeleva. SPb., 1999.
Andreev Yu. V. Spartan "horsemen" // VDI. 1969. No. 4. S. 24-36.
Archaeological Congress in Kyiv // Archaeological News and Notes. T. VII. 1899. No. 8-10. pp. 275-277.
Concepts of foreign ethnology (critical studies). M., 1976.
Mongait A. L. Archeology of Western Europe. T. 1-2. M., 1973-1974.
Problems of the history of the ancient world. M., 2002.
Sallares R. Ecology of the ancient world: problems and approaches // VDI. 1995. No. 3. S. 80-103.
Shoffman A.S. History of ancient Macedonia. T. 1. Kazan, 1960.
Shofman A.S. The main problems of the history of ancient Macedonia in historiography // Uchenye zapiski Kazanskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta im. V. I. Ulyanov-Lenin. T. 114. Book. 5. History. Kazan, 1954, pp. 149-175.
4. Design of footnotes.
Footnotes can be page by page or at the end of the text of the abstract, this is not essential. The publication to which the author refers must also be formatted in accordance with the small bibliographic description, it is obligatory to indicate exactly the page to which you refer.
5. Design of the title page of the abstract
Moscow City Pedagogical University
History department
on the basics of archeology
Topic: "Old Babylonian society according to the laws of Hammurabi"
completed: student of the 11th group d / o Vasin K.P.
leader: Ph.D. n., Art. teacher Krykina O.V.
Possible topics of term papers.
Famous archaeologists of the planet (personality).Successes of domestic archeology (personality, region or direction).
Archeology of Moscow (Lyalovo, Dyakovo or others).
Archeology of the Kostroma Territory (era to choose from).
To choose from: Pskov, Novgorod, Smolensk and Gnezdovo, Rostov-Veliky and Sarskoe settlement, Staraya Ryazan, Staraya Ladoga, Suzdal, Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Kiev.
Steppe nomads of the Middle Ages (ethnos to choose from).
Scythian burial mounds (region to choose from).
Sarmatian burials (one period).
Cimmerians.
Archeology of the Urartians.
Ancient Colchis.
Antique Northern Black Sea region - to choose from: Berezan, Olbia, Tyra, Nikony, Chersonesus, Chersonesos chorus, Panticapaeum, Phanagoria, Germonassa, Gorgippia, small towns of the Bosporus, rural settlements of the Bosporus.
Medieval Crimea (separate region or center).
Temple of the ancient Slavs.
Christian architecture of Ancient Rus' (separate region or era).
Fortification and architecture of Ancient Rus' in the pre-Mongolian period.
Weapons of pre-Mongol Rus.
Artistic crafts of Rus' in the pre-Mongolian period.
Volga Bulgaria.
Golden Horde (one center or analysis of burial complexes).
Archeology of individual Russian principalities (optional).
Medieval Finnish tribes (optional).
Medieval Balts.
Tikhonova Daria
Report on the topic: "Archaeology". What is archeology? Profession - archaeologist.
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ARCHEOLOGY
Introduction
Today we looked at photos. Isn't it very interesting to see what you were like a few years ago; how small was mom, what did she look like, what were grandparents like? Thanks to photographs, you can always look into the past. Do you think we need to remember the past, for what?
And how do you find out about something that was a very long time ago, so long ago that even grandparents do not remember it? There is not a single photograph of that distant time, for the simple reason that there were no cameras before.
Since ancient times, people have found various objects in the ground: shards of dishes, stone axes, jewelry, stone and wood products, arrowheads, individual bones, and sometimes even entire burials, armor, coins, treasures ... (showing photographs, images of ancient objects) . How did they get there? Have you noticed that if you do not wipe the furniture at home for several days, a layer of dust accumulates on it. And for thousands of years, a thick layer of dust, sand and earth covered everything that was left of the ancient people. Grasses, trees, or even a whole city have grown on this place. As a result of earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions, entire settlements were destroyed and disappeared. Some were littered with erupting lava volcanoes, some disappeared into the oceans. To find traces of the past, people started excavations. People who excavate are called: scientists - archaeologists; science has emerged ARCHEOLOGY.
Archeology in Latin means ANCIENT DOCTRINE
(Archius - ancient, logos - word, teaching
I invite you to make a short journey, during which we will get acquainted with the profession of an archaeologist and the science of archeology
Each person should know their history, how it all began, it is Archeology that helps us in this. Until now, scientists learn a lot of new, unknown. Archeology helps to understand many new things in modern human life.
Profession archaeologist
Archaeologist is a scientist who studies the life and culture of ancient civilizations on the basis of the preserved remains of their life. The main task of the work of an archaeologist is to conduct excavations to find sources of research. Archeology is often compared to detective work. This is a creative profession, as you have to use imagination and abstract thinking to recreate the original picture of the world of the past. Archaeologists work as if with separate elements of the mosaic, which must be put together in order to solve the riddle. Sometimes it takes years to completely unravel the secrets of an ancient culture or archaeological site.
Job description:
It is rare to find a profession more bleak than the profession of a field archaeologist working in the desert, among wild rocks, at a complete distance from any civilization, in difficult climatic conditions that can deprive a person of all courage ... And they do not make a sensation out of all this - these archaeologists. They continue to work as if their working conditions are something taken for granted. For for them all over the world there is no more interesting profession than their chosen one. They live in the midst of danger, face to face with a mystery that has not yet been revealed. Not today or tomorrow it may be revealed, and then the world press will name them. (Quote from the German historian E. Zehren.)
Without a sufficient share of fanaticism, adventurism and love for history, people do not come to archeology. Craving for ancient times, countries, civilizations, interest in bygone and mysterious times - that's what drives lovers to "dig in the sand." As the archaeologists themselves assure, once you find at least a few shards of dishes that have been preserved, say, from the Middle Ages, the thirst to touch history will never leave you.
What exactly does an archaeologist do?
A scientist-archaeologist can, for example, study the remains of sunken ships at the bottom of the sea (marine archeology), dig up and inspect everything that remains of human settlements of past centuries (field archeology) or, using special materials and techniques, try to reconstruct things of past times, recreating them literally bit by bit (experimental archeology).
Personal qualities of an archaeologist:
Since the activity of an archaeologist is associated with frequent excavations in various climatic conditions, good physical fitness and endurance are required, as well as the absence of allergic reactions to various organic materials.
Due to long archaeological expeditions, a person of this profession must also be emotionally prepared, calm and balanced, because work can be both individual and in a team. In most cases, "hunters for antiquities" are wielding a shovel, shovel, spoon, and even an ordinary toothbrush. Well, you can’t do without the notorious brushes for cleaning the found values.
Education (What do you need to know?):
Knowing how to use a shovel correctly and having the proper enthusiasm, coupled with some money in your own pocket, getting to the excavations is not very difficult. But in order to become a true specialist in your industry, you need to be able to do a number of things.
In addition to the deepest knowledge in the field of history, a professional archaeologist must have the skills of drawing, drafting, be able to photograph, be sure to know the basics of restoration and conservation of various objects made of stone, clay, metal, wood, leather, fabric, bone, and so on.
Without special knowledge in ethnography, anthropology, topography, geodesy, geology, without a solid knowledge of information on auxiliary historical disciplines such as heraldry, sphragistics, numismatics, textual criticism, an archaeologist cannot take place as a specialist.
Place of work and career:
Or maybe you will go down in history as Heinrich Schliemann, who became famous for his finds in Asia Minor at the site of ancient (Homeric) Troy, or as Howard Carter, who discovered the tomb of Tutankhamun.
The social significance of the profession in society:
Often, archaeologists in their research collaborate with other branches of science, which helps to optimize the methods of research and analysis of objects. The work of an archaeologist is extremely in demand today, since a lot of secrets and mysteries of the ancient peoples and civilizations of our planet have not yet been discovered.
The mass character and uniqueness of the profession:
The main activity of an archaeologist is excavation in order to search for ancient monuments and other historically significant objects. Archaeologists also find employment in museums, where they ensure the preservation of objects found during excavations, acquaint visitors with the findings and the results of their research, organize exhibitions and prepare excursions.
Profession risks:
Since the activity of an archaeologist is associated with frequent excavations in various climatic conditions, good physical fitness and endurance are required, as well as the absence of allergic reactions to various organic materials. Due to long archaeological expeditions, a person of this profession must also be emotionally prepared, calm and balanced, because work can be both individual and in a team.
Any profession requires knowledge, wide erudition. For an archaeologist, such sciences as geography, physics, and chemistry are also important. These subjects are not as interesting to me as history, but they must be studied in order to achieve one's life goal.
Many of my friends believe that archeology is a rather boring science that requires painstaking, exhausting work. But I think it's an important, honorable profession. Yes, you need to have strong character traits, be an optimist and believe in miracles. Archaeologists have to work under the scorching sun and pouring rain, sorting through thousands of tons of earth for the sake of a small find. How hardy and efficient these people must be! How difficult it is to get to the truth hidden under a thick layer of dust and sand! Not everyone is able to constantly delve into the bones and turtles. Everything is available only to the brave, courageous and persistent. These are the people I value and consider my ideal.
Science - Archeology
It is curious that archeology, the science of antiquity, itself arose in ancient times. And then scientists wanted to know the life and culture of their ancestors. Only thanks to excavations and study of the found material, the period of history preceding writing became known. And the written sources themselves were opened to science by archaeologists, for example, Egyptian hieroglyphs, linear Greek writing, Babylonian cuneiform. Also of interest are the found tools of production and the material goods created with their help: the ruins of cities, weapons, jewelry, utensils, remnants of clothing. From them they learn what kind of people lived in ancient times, what kind of houses they built, what they wore and much more.
The profession of an archaeologist was popular in ancient Rome and Greece. Even then, people knew about the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages, carried out excavations and found ancient architectural monuments. During the Renaissance, numerous excavations were carried out, the main purpose of which was to obtain ancient sculptures.
Archeology as a science was formed only at the beginning of the 20th century and today it represents sections that study various areas of cultures and eras.
For example, archeology confirms
The hypothesis of the emergence and development of man on Earth:
A lot of scientists at different times put forward their hypotheses of the appearance and development of man on Earth. Someone assumed that a person is a relative of a dolphin, someone thought that a person descended from a pig. The most widespread version of the origin of man from apes.Monkey - the closest relatives of people, since they are very close in body structure. In the 19th century, it was assumed that the closest to humans of the existing species of monkeys arechimpanzee and that humans and African apes once had a common ancestor.
The remains of animals, birds, fish and even insects have been preserved in different layers of the earth. How would we know that dinosaurs and mammoths once lived. Archaeological research provides us with valuable information.
My favorite thing is to study dinosaurs. If man appeared on Earth more than 2,000,000 years ago, then dinosaurs, JUST IMAGINE, more than 200 million years ago!
The very first dinosaur is considered Staurikosaurus - he was quite small, only 80 cm high and 2 m long and weighed no more than 30 kilograms (that's almost like us!), but he was the fastest predator in the history of dinosaurs.
All dinosaurs were divided into 2 species, some look like lizards, others look like birds.
I can’t tell you about all of them, since there were about 1000 different types, the most common were:
Tyrannosaurus - this is the largest dinosaur, was an apex predator, weighed like a huge truck, almost 13 tons
Triceratops - had a large bone collar, threehorns on the muzzle, large thick limbs and somewhat similar to a rhinoceros
Pterosaur - a flying dinosaur. Large dinosaurs mainly fed on terrestrial animals, but sometimes, like small ones, hunted for fish, flying above the surface of the water.
All these types of dinosaurs were identified by archaeologists during excavations. Archaeologists have found various dinosaur skeletons, and from them, scientists have determined how dinosaurs looked in the past. Thus, archeology helps to find out how animals and people lived in the distant past.
Archeology in the modern world is a very important science that allows us to lift the veil of secrets of ancient civilizations, allows us to study the culture and life of different eras, and also introduces the remains of ancient animals and plants.
When we first saw the Indiana Jones movie, many of us found archeology exciting and romantic, but later realized that being an archaeologist does not mean chasing Nazis or embarking on risky adventures. Nevertheless, this profession is very interesting. It is divided into many types; researchers who conduct excavations usually have a fairly narrow specialization.
In order to be considered archaeological, excavations must be carried out for the purpose of finding physical traces of the existence of a group of civilized people. This distinguishes archeology from other related fields such as anthropology. The definitions of this science may vary, but all archaeologists are looking for specific objects, no matter how fragmentary they may be.
Underwater archaeologists explore the depths of the oceans in search of long-sunken relics. Some specialize in deep sea excavations, while others focus on lakes, rivers and ponds. They may work on shipwrecks, but they also study cities and towns submerged by Earth's shifting waters. Exploring the seabed can be both a profession and a hobby; some wrecks have already been fully explored and are open to ordinary divers, while many others are not yet.
Military archaeologists methodically scour every inch of the battlefield, looking for weapons and armor. In addition, they are looking for artifacts that can be used to understand what was the daily life of soldiers in military camps.
Prehistoric archeology studies primitive cultures, in particular those that did not yet have a written language. On the contrary, historical archeology covers everything that happened after the appearance of writing. It is also divided into different groups, including classical (ancient Greece and Rome), Egyptian and biblical. Specialists in the field of the latter are trying to find places mentioned in the Bible and evidence of biblical events.
Oddly enough, there are also "modern" types of archeology. Garbologists study what people throw away and identify patterns and changes in the habits of a civilized society. Industrial archaeologists study mainly the industrial landscape and its development, while urban researchers look at the evolution of cities, especially old ones.
Experimental archeology is a very practical field. In it, scientists not only find and document artifacts and other historical finds, but also try to connect with each other the time frames of events that link different stages of human history.
There is also ethnoarchaeology. This branch studies cultures that still exist today, but live in much the same way as they did many centuries ago. For example, these are modern nomadic tribes, hunter-gatherers, and societies that do not have access to many modern conveniences. Ethnoarchaeologists then use their findings to study cultures that have already disappeared.
Another modern type of archeology is aerial. It is incredibly exciting, but also difficult. Those who know what to look for can spot previously undiscovered mounds, buildings, and even entire settlements from the air. After all, from above you can see objects that are difficult to see while on the ground.
Scientists and archeologists persistently assure us that they know everything about our origin and history. To tell the truth, it's not like that at all.
Every year, new facts are discovered that incredibly expand the familiar, cozy, but very narrow boundaries of the modern world.
Ancient man and extinct creatures
Many thousands of years ago, ancient people tried to capture the visual image of their world. They drew and carved images of people, animals that they hunted or tamed, and later some important events. Among these testimonies there are some that are very, very unusual: they defy simple explanation.
At the very beginning of the Egyptian royal dynasty, around 3100 BC, when writing was still in its infancy, highly artistic slate palettes were made, which were used on solemn occasions to mix dyes applied in the form of makeup. A number of such palettes have been found, and especially at Hierakonpolis, the ancient capital of southern Egypt. All of them are covered with the most elaborate carvings depicting hunting scenes or episodes of political life. Numerous animals and people are depicted with great care. The beasts in particular are easily recognizable; there is nothing in them that would indicate that they are the fruit of fantasy.
It is all the more surprising that two of the found palettes - one of them is now in the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, and the other in the Cairo Archaeological Museum - depict creatures with long necks that correspond to the description of the mokele-mbembe.
"Palette of Narmer", a pre-dynastic Egyptian incised tablet dated to about 3100 BC.
The palette of King Narmer in Cairo is especially revealing in this sense. In the center of the tablet - framing rounded recesses in which dyes could be mixed - are the long, curved necks of two strange beasts with powerful limbs and long tails. Both creatures are depicted as captives: a rope is thrown around the neck of each of them, which is held tightly by the Egyptian guards. Here, perhaps, the illustrations are closest to fantasy: no man alone could hold such a beast.
Naturally, since such creatures are not recognized today by science, they were quickly classified as "mythological". However, after a moment it becomes clear that such a conclusion is not justified in any way.
Leaving aside the prejudices of modern science, the logic of the palette itself - and this is the only logic that matters in this situation - requires that we consider these two long-necked creatures as real, as known, like any other animals and people depicted on the palette . Therefore, we cannot but conclude that the ancient Egyptians managed to catch specimens of some huge beast, which either no longer exists, or lives only in some remote area, which is unknown to science. An animal remarkably similar to the one said to have been seen in the Congolese swamps.
But the ancient Egyptians were not the first people to capture such strange creatures that must have inhabited their world and which, perhaps, still inhabit ours. Millennia before them, during the era of the last ice age, people depicted similar monsters.
It is well known that many caves have been found in Spain and France, in which there are images made by early man. Some of them are carved with sharp stones; some are drawn with charcoal; others are painted. The most striking thing about these illustrations is the highest level of artistic skill displayed by people who are otherwise condescendingly referred to as "cavemen". In addition, the credibility with which animals are depicted makes it easy to identify the vast majority of them. All the more surprising is the fact that among the thousands of drawings, carvings or painted images, only two cases are known when animals with long necks are illustrated, unlike any of the currently known animals.
Depiction of a long-necked creature from the cave of Pergouse, France, dated to about 10,000-13,000 B.C. BC.
The first such image is found in the cave of Pergouse in southern France and has more than 12 thousand years. This is a carefully carved image of an animal with a very long neck, with the head set like a horse. Isn't that a giraffe? Unlikely, given the almost arctic ice age conditions that existed outside. Isn't it, then, a creature like the mokele-mbembe? Or perhaps a sea creature like the Vancouver Cuddy? Nobody knows this. Archaeologists who drew attention to it in 1997 noted that “the long neck is not an accident; lines have been highlighted or recut several times…”. They speculated that perhaps this and other images were fantasies created under the influence of hallucinogenic drugs. Is it possible; however, it is much more likely that, as in the case of other drawings, this creature lived in a world outside the walls of the cave and the artist saw him.
An image of a group of unknown reptilian creatures carved into the wall of a cave in Casares, in Ice Age Spain.
The second example is even more mysterious. The Spanish cave of Casares, also dating from the Ice Age, shows a group of three monstrous dinosaur-like creatures. Two of these animals are large, possibly adults, and the third animal is small, apparently a calf. All three have long necks, massive but ill-defined torsos, and strange reptilian heads. They look menacing.
As in other cases, the logic of the caves themselves suggests that these are creatures that the artists actually saw outside the walls of their dwellings.
Did our ancestors, until relatively recently, encounter real-life monsters when they hunted in the forests or fished in the rivers? These drawings seem to prove that this was the case. In any case, however the reality may be, to qualify these creatures as "mythological" or as "fantasy" is to jump to conclusions and dismiss potentially significant historical data.
It may happen that we dig up their bones somewhere. Unless, of course, they were aquatic or partly aquatic inhabitants of coastal rivers - in which case their bones, probably, had long been carried far into the sea.
flying monsters
From 1911 to 1922, Englishman Frank Melland served the British colonial authorities as a district judge in what is now Zambia. He had a keen interest in natural history and was admitted to the Royal Anthropological Institute, the Royal Geographical Society, and the Zoological Society. In 1923, after returning to England, he published In Enchanted Africa, a study of tribal shamanism that he observed during his time in the colony. In it, he described how his curiosity as a zoologist once flared up when he was told about a certain magical spell used at certain river crossings in order to avoid attack by some terrible creature, which the natives were very afraid of and called "kongamato".
When he asked, “What is it, kongamato?” He received a surprising answer. He was told that it was a kind of bird, or rather a flying creature, like a lizard, with wings like a bat, measuring from four to seven feet across. Moreover, the beak of this creature had numerous sharp teeth. Melland wrote: "I sent for two books to my house, in which there were images of a pterodactyl, and all the natives present immediately and without hesitation pointed to it and said that it was a congamato." According to them, this creature lived in wetlands in the jungle, especially in the marshes upstream of the Mwombezi River, which originates near the border with Zaire.
Farther south, in Zimbabwe, there were stories of a similar creature. The English journalist J. Ward Price related a story told to him by a colonial officer whose jurisdiction included a huge swamp, which the locals were so afraid of that they usually refused to approach it.
One man, however, was foolhardy enough to venture into the swamp. Some time later, he returned with a deep wound on his chest and reported that he had been attacked by a large bird with a long beak. The colonial officer obtained a book containing illustrations of prehistoric animals and showed it to the wounded man. He looked at it silently until he came across an image of a pterodactyl. Then he screamed and immediately ran away.
The officer told Price, "It seems to me very possible that pterodactyls are still found in these vast and unexplored territories."
But not only the natives saw these strange creatures. In 1941, a British army officer and his subordinate soldiers observed one such flying creature over their heads.
That year Lieutenant Colonel Symonds was in Sudan under the command of Ord Wingate, who was preparing his invasion of Ethiopia to restore exiled Emperor Haile Selassie to the throne. In accordance with the developed strategic plan, Symonds, who commanded a very small group of soldiers and officers, was sent south. He and his men left the town of Roseires in southern Sudan and crossed into Ethiopia, moving east through the jungle towards the mountains, which they reached in fifteen days. During this forced march, they just saw a strange flying creature that fit the description of a pterodactyl.
In a private memoir he wrote for his daughter, Lieutenant Colonel Symonds described what happened: “During our forced march, we constantly saw and heard wild animals, and although I told this story when I returned to civilization, I don’t think anyone believed me, even now. We all saw a bird of incredible size gliding above us, which seemed to have something like a second wing at the end of the main wing - almost like an arm. She made a huge wave, and then another - a small one. When I arrived in Cairo, I reported this to the naturalists, who, after checking the information, said that what I saw was a pterodactyl that had become extinct for more than a million years ago!
Creatures of the New World
Messages about pterodactyls are not limited to the “islands” of swamps in the jungles of Africa, isolated from the outside world. They are also found in other areas, in an area that would seem to be one of the most studied regions of the world, namely in North America.
April 26, 1890 « TombstoneEpitaph» (a newspaper that bears one of the most delightful titles in the world) published a story replete with the usual exaggeration about how, a few days earlier, two horse travelers traveling through the Guachuca Desert, south of Tombstone, about fifteen miles north of the Mexican border , met a huge flying monster. It was reported that the monster was over ninety feet long, and its wings - bat-like, leathery and featherless - were 160 feet across. On the head, eight feet long, was a jaw with a row of sharp and strong teeth. According to the newspaper, two riders fired and killed the bird.
In 1969, the same story, with all the exaggerations of the original message, was set out in a magazine, where it was seen at that time by an elderly man who, in his childhood, personally knew both eyewitnesses and heard this story from them themselves. He decided to rectify the situation and set out everything as it was. He explained that both participants in that story were well-known and respected cattle breeders in the district. On that day, they really met a very unusual creature, something completely unknown to them with large leathery wings. The wings of the creature were not as huge as the newspaper reported; they estimated that the wingspan was somewhere in the region of twenty or thirty feet, which, of course, is also quite a lot. They fired at him with their rifles, but did not kill him; twice he managed to rise into the air, but it again fell down. They left him wounded, still struggling to fly.
At a much more recent time in Texas on April 24, 1976, three schoolteachers were driving along a country road near the Mexican border when a huge shadow suddenly covered them. Above them, they saw a large flying creature with very large wings in the form of skin tightly stretched over long thin bones, very similar to the wings of a bat. Except that those wings were fifteen to twenty feet across. Never before had they seen anything even remotely resembling this creature. Later, they spent some time flipping through reference books looking for anything, living or dead, that could explain this bird - if it was a bird.
Eventually they found a creature that seemed to match exactly what they had seen: it was a Pteranodon, a pterosaur with a very large beak and wings that were thirty feet across. Unfortunately, this flying creature died out during the time of the dinosaurs, almost 65 million years ago.
Oddly enough, a few days before them, a similar flying creature - possibly the same thing - was seen by two other eyewitnesses, also near the Mexican border.
Such creatures may even have flown further north. On the morning of August 8, 1981, a married couple was driving through Mount Tuscarora in Pennsylvania. Suddenly, two large creatures, similar to bats, appeared ahead of them, running towards them. They were obviously startled by the sudden appearance of the car, and with their leather-wrapped wings spread wide, they tried to take off. Their wings spanned the road, spanning at least fifteen feet. Giant birds soared into the sky, and for the next fifteen minutes the couple watched as they gradually disappeared high into the sky. The couple later identified them as "prehistoric birds" like pterosaurs.
The world of academic science cannot explain these cases. He is forced to either ignore them or qualify them as an optical illusion, a fantasy, or a falsification. However, science is able to provide evidence that exactly such creatures once lived in this area. Between 1971 and 1975, fossils of three pterosaurs were recovered from the rock in western Texas. The remains date from the last years of the dinosaur age, and although the skeletons were not entirely complete, enough bones were found to calculate their wingspan - about fifty feet.
These are not only the largest of such flying creatures ever found, but they are also the closest pterosaurs ever found to us in time, dating from the very end of the dinosaur era. According to fossil data, this species was the last of those that once existed on Earth. Someday, perhaps, we will be able to extract from the earth some fossils of this type that are closer to us in time - or, perhaps, some of their remains.
We have seen how isolated but climatically stable areas can harbor large, unexplored animals that have long been thought to be extinct. The sea, which has already opened the veil on some of its secrets in the case of the coelacanth and the bigmouth shark, can still reveal the existence of more unknown creatures - the same megalodon, perhaps, or Cuddy. The jungles of Central Africa are clearly fraught with the existence of one or more species of semi-aquatic monsters, which in fact may be relic dinosaurs. But could Texas be such a region?
It has long been a strong opinion that everything in Texas is the largest. Perhaps these stories are just an exaggerated account of an encounter with a large species of bat? Is it really possible that such unknown creatures could find refuge in North America, where the sky, it would seem, is forever plowing planes and helicopters? Are there any isolated and remote areas near Texas - like those in Central Africa - where some large, but still unidentified creature could live? The fact of the matter is that one such region exists.
Northern Mexico is dominated by the largely unexplored Sierra Madre mountain range, which stretches like a spine from Oaxaca to the American border. This region is an ideal place where unknown creatures could still live, isolated from human contact. Cryptozoologist Dr. Karl Zucker suggests that this is where they could be found. Dr. Zucker points out another intriguing possibility: in 1968, an archaeologist discovered an unusual relief in the ruins of the Mayan city of El Tajin, which lies at the southeastern foot of the mountain range. This carved relief depicted a "bird-serpent", which, according to the archaeologist, was not some fabulous legendary beast, but an accurate representation of a certain flying creature well known to the ancient Maya. This "bird-snake" is strikingly similar to a pterosaur. Perhaps the archaeologist is right? If so, then this means that such a creature lived in historical times, perhaps even at the time of the final collapse of the Maya civilization a thousand years ago. Dr. Zucker comments:
“Cryptozoology is full of amazing coincidences, but there are few coincidences that would be more amazing ... than the indisputable fact that the reports of these days about giant pterosaur-like creatures do not come from anywhere, but from the same region that was once the real habitat of a creature of this type.
ancient dinosaurs
What are the chances of a creature found in a 64-million-year-old fossil to survive to this day? One should think that they are very ghostly. And what would we say about a creature whose age is twice that? That his chances will be twice as small? The prosperous existence of the coelacanth demonstrates how ridiculous such appeals to common sense are in this area. It seems possible that any older animal could, under the right conditions, stand a chance of survival. It may be objected that the sea is a much more stable environment than any land area. And that seems like a reasonable argument. However, the facts testify to much stranger things.
For example, there is one animal whose prosperous existence makes all zoologists think, even those who are most skeptical. This creature is a tuatara, or tuatara.
Tuatara is a very primitive reptile, resembling a lizard, with three eyes - the third eye is only partly functional. It reaches about two feet in length and leads a predominantly solitary nocturnal lifestyle. The age of the fossil remains of this type of creature is estimated at more than 200 million years, and since that time these animals have changed little. In all parts of the world, with the exception of the South Pacific, fossil footprints of these creatures cut off along with the fossil footprints of dinosaurs. If not for the surviving representatives of these creatures in the South Pacific, then it would be believed that all these creatures disappeared during the same cataclysm that claimed the dinosaurs. But the tuatara outlived the dinosaurs; it may well be that she will outlive people.
It still lives on a few, very small and very remote islands off the coast of New Zealand. The second species lives about two thousand miles away on an isolated ten-acre island that is part of the Cook Islands. The question is, how did it happen that not somewhere on the globe, but precisely on these islands, far apart from each other and separated by huge distances from the mainland land, were the only surviving species of tuatara?
What would be the chances of science to predict this situation? It is fair to say that, no matter how far beyond common sense the reasoning, scientists could never have come to consider such survival in such an isolated environment even remotely possible.
We can only conclude that when we deal with nature, anything is possible. And to forget this simple truth is to live in a fantasy world. The cryptozoologists must be right in their approach: it is more rather than less likely that large unknown species still exist, still continue to elude our eyes - in the sea, on land or in the air.
This scientific adventure is yet to be continued.
Plan
Introduction
Conclusion
Literature
Introduction
Archeology (other - Greek ἀρχαῖος - ancient and λόγος - word, doctrine) - historical discipline<#"center">The birth of archaeological research: the formation of archeology as a science
Archeology is a branch of historical science that studies the past of mankind mainly on the basis of material historical sources, or archaeological monuments in the broad sense of the word. Material sources include both specific ancient objects, as well as structures, structures, all traces and consequences of human labor and any anthropogenic activity. The need for archeology is primarily due to the presence of periods, aspects or phenomena of human history that are not reflected in written sources or in oral information.
At present, the understanding of the word "archeology" is somewhat different from the original meaning given to it by the ancient Greeks. Meanwhile, it is to them that mankind owes the introduction of this term into everyday life, and later into scientific circulation ("arhaios" - ancient, "logos" - teaching, word). In particular, Plato, in whose works we find one of the earliest references to the concept of "archaeology", this term is present in the meaning of "stories about antiquity".
In Plato's dialogue Hippias the Greater, the sophist Hippias reports that the Lacedaemonians (Spartans) listened to stories "about the genealogies of heroes and people, about migrations, that is, about how cities were founded in the old days, and in general about all archeology."
In a similar sense, stories about antiquities, about ancient times, used the word "archeology" and other ancient authors, while not having in mind the science of the most ancient part of the history of mankind, and even more so excavations and the study of what was excavated.
In the era of the European Renaissance, archeology became an illustration of the history of ancient (Greek and Roman art), in fact, it was part of the museum and antiquarian business, replenishing the collections of ancient sculptures and ceramics.
Subsequently, in the 18th century, this term was revived by Western European art history in the sense of "description of the monuments of ancient art."
In the development of Russian archeology, several periods can be distinguished, which differ not only chronologically, but also in their philosophical and methodological orientation, methods of scientific research, methods of extracting information, goals and objectives of historical reconstruction.
First period(XVIII - early XIX century) - the emergence and initial stage of development of Russian archeology, encyclopedism in science. The first excavations of Scythian and Slavic mounds, ancient settlements, mounds in Siberia are being carried out, and archaeological collections are being formed. However, during this period it is hardly possible to speak of archeology as an independent science. Second period(mid-19th century - mid-30s of the 20th century) - a democratic period in the development of Russian archeology. It is characterized by the emergence of archaeological societies, local publications and museums, large excavations for those times, the discovery of Paleolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age monuments, the formation of Russian archeology as a science and the folding of its main directions (Scythian, Slavic-Russian, ancient), the emergence of Paleolithic and regional archeology of the Caucasus, Central Asia, Siberia. The completion of this stage was the creation of evolutionary schemes for the periodization of the archeology of Eastern Europe (V.V. Gorodtsov) and Siberia (S.A. Teploukhov). The October Revolution did not bring any significant changes to the development of archeology: the cadres of archaeologists remained the same until the 1930s, and the Russian Academy of Material Culture took the place of the tsarist Archaeological Commission. Third period(mid-30s - late 60s) - the centralization and ideologization of science, the introduction into it of the principles of Marxist ideology, Bolshevik views, Stalinism and, as its expression, "Lysenkoism" in historical science. The fourth period- modern . In Russia in the 19th century, as well as in Western Europe, the content of this term also did not fully correspond to its modern understanding. Not only in popular periodicals, but also in the professional environment, "archeology" then meant any information about antiquities and, in general, about antiquity, even not very deep. So, in 1809, the course "Archaeology and the history of fine arts" appeared in the program of Moscow University, and later the department "Theory of fine arts and archeology" was created here. In 1869, in his report "The Fate of Archeology in Russia" at the First Archaeological Congress in Moscow, the famous historian M.N. Pogodin, defining archeology as "the science, the doctrine of antiquities," further argued: "Archaeology has as its subject mainly material monuments, but in many respects it is impossible to separate from them not only written monuments, but also oral, everyday ones. Yes, material monuments, oral , everyday, written have a close connection with each other and cannot be separated. The program of the congress is also indicative. The section "Russian Archeology" includes "legal antiquities", "church Russian singing", "folk worldly singing and music proper". In the first half of the XIX century. Danish archaeologist X. Thomsen, using the method of comparative analysis, scientifically substantiated the idea of dividing the history of mankind into three eras. Proceeding from the ideas of progressive evolutionism, in his works "Northern Antiquities" and "Catalogue of the Museum in Copenhagen" he showed that all pre-literate history is divided into stone, bronze and iron periods. Thus, the cornerstones of the archaeological periodization of human history were laid. The archaeological periodization created by H. Thomsen was developed by another Danish archaeologist, P. Vorso. Studying the burials of the Neolithic and Bronze Ages, he built a more complete relative chronology of the found objects and presented it in the work "New divisions of the Stone and Bronze Ages". The work on the chronological scheme of Thomsen and Vorso was continued by the French archaeologist G. Mortillet, who noticed that the oldest stone tools are not the same - some are crude and primitive, others are more perfect. On this basis, he divided the Paleolithic into several periods, giving each of them a name after the place of the first finds. The studies of Thomsen, Vorso and Mortillet were of great importance for the development of world archeology and had a significant impact on the development of archaeological thought in Russia. In the second half of the XIX century. the whole world was struck by the discovery by G. Schliemann of the monuments of ancient civilizations in the Mediterranean basin, which served as a kind of impetus for the development of world archeology. The second largest event in world archeology was the work of the English archaeologist A. Evans on the island of Crete. He opened the royal palaces, cities, workshops and temples that were created over several millennia. The studies carried out have shed light on the ancient history of the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Late XIX - early XX century. were marked by a number of achievements in the development of theoretical archeology: the discovery of new archaeological cultures, the beginning of the study of cultural complexes and the successful application of the method of comparative analysis, the recognition of the role of migrations of peoples in history, attempts to trace the spread of cultures in time and space, to identify its causes. Thus, archeology is a branch of historical science that studies the past of mankind mainly on the basis of material historical sources, or archaeological monuments in the broad sense of the word. Material sources include both specific ancient objects, as well as structures, structures, all traces and consequences of human labor and any anthropogenic activity. The need for archeology is primarily due to the presence of periods, aspects or phenomena of human history that are not reflected in written sources or in oral information. Development of archeology after 1917
Soviet archaeological science in the post-revolutionary years grew on the foundation of pre-revolutionary Russian archeology. Organizational continuity, in particular, was manifested in the fact that the Imperial Archaeological Commission formed the basis of the Russian State Archaeological Commission (1918), whose members in full force entered the Russian (since 1926 - State) Academy of the History of Material Culture (GAIMK) ). GAIMK became the central archaeological institution of Soviet Russia and was located in Leningrad. Back in 1924, the Moscow section of this Academy was formed. As part of the GAIMK, thus, the main forces of Russian archeology have united. In addition, back in 1924, on the basis of Moscow University, the Research Institute of Archeology and Art History was established, which became part of the Russian Association of Research Institutes of Social Sciences. In 1937, GAIMK was transformed into the Institute of the History of Material Culture, which became part of the USSR Academy of Sciences, and in 1959 was renamed the Institute of Archeology. Despite the hardships of the first post-revolutionary years, the persecution, death and emigration of many outstanding specialists, the backbone of Russian archeology has been preserved. These were highly qualified specialists who were world famous - D.N. Anuchin (patriarch of the teaching of archaeological science at Moscow University), V.A. Gorodtsov, A.A. Spitsyn, N.Ya. Marr, B.V. Farmakovskiy, S.A. Zhebelev, F.I. Uspensky and others. And in the 20s. 20th century a new generation of domestic archaeologists entered science - B.S. Zhukov, A.V. Artsikhovsky, B.A. Rybakov, A.V. Schmidt, V.I. Ravdonikas, M.I. Artamonov, B.A. Kuftin, O.N. Bader, M.V. Voevodsky, B.B. Piotrovsky, M.P. Dirty, B.N. Trakov, SV. Kiselev, N.N. Voronin, V.F. Smolin, P.S. Rykov, B.E. Petri and others, who grew up on the traditions of pre-revolutionary archeology. It was this generation that, through its further activities, preserved continuity in the development of domestic archeology and determined the structure, problems and main directions of the emerging Soviet archaeological science. In accordance with this, until 1929, the development of archeology in the USSR continued in line with those research tasks that had been outlined before 1917. Particular attention was paid to the paleoethnological direction, which was aimed at studying the reflection of the laws of development of living ethnic cultures in the material remains of archaeological cultures. However, since the second half of the 1920s. archeology increasingly began to lose its specificity, dissolving into sociology. Archeology began to be called "bourgeois science", "thing science". The introduction of the methodology of Marxism-Leninism initially proceeded as part of the search for new approaches to the study of archaeological materials. In this regard, the works of A.V. Artsikhovsky, SV. Kiseleva, A.Ya. Bryusova, A.P. Smirnova. But since 1929, the "Japhetic doctrine of language" of the NL began to be declared as a Marxist methodology in Soviet archeology. Marra. Since the mid 1930s. the sociological direction in our archeology began to outlive itself. In connection with the deepening of attention to ethnic issues, issues of origin and ethnic history of the peoples of the USSR, primarily the Slavs, there was a gradual return to the ethnological direction, to the ethno-cultural issues of archaeological research. At the same time, creative freedom continued to be constrained by the monopoly of state ideology, reinforced by various measures, including repressive ones, to which many archaeologists were subjected. As for the actual archaeological excavations, they reached an unprecedented scale in Soviet times, especially in areas of new construction. Despite the contradictory nature of the processes that took place in science and in society during this period, a broad survey of the territory of the USSR will forever remain one of the greatest achievements of Soviet archeology. In pre-revolutionary Russia, the monuments of the Northern Black Sea region, Ukraine, the Baltic states, the center of the Russian Plain, and the lower Kama region were best studied. In other regions of the country, archaeological excavations were sporadic. In the Soviet era, all the main regions of the USSR were covered by research that touched on all historical eras - from the early Stone Age to the late Middle Ages. Archaeological excavations and exploration were carried out in the country already in the first post-revolutionary years, despite scarce funding, hunger and devastation. In the next decade, during the years of the NEP, against the background of general economic stabilization in the country, forwarding activities also noticeably intensified. Since 1921, the number of active expeditions has gradually increased. Unique archeological monuments of different epochs were studied and the source base of archeological science was significantly strengthened. The source base was replenished even more noticeably in the 1930s. with the beginning of mass work of archaeologists in areas of unfolding large-scale construction. These works were facilitated by the decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR adopted in 1934 on financing the excavation of archaeological sites doomed to destruction during new buildings. In the post-war years and up to the mid-1980s. archaeological research on new buildings was carried out on an ever-increasing scale. In the 50-60s. 20th century new sources obtained during the work of the Kuibyshev, Stalingrad, Kama, Botkin, Volga-Don, Kakhov and other new construction expeditions were quickly published. However, in the future, the growth of materials began to roll like a "ninth wave": their scientific processing and publication no longer kept up with the pace of excavations. The speedy publication of numerous data obtained is one of the most urgent tasks of Russian archeology at the present stage. The scope of field archaeological research has been significantly reduced in the "era of change" associated with the collapse of the Soviet Union. However, in recent years in the Russian Federation, their volumes have been steadily increasing. The organizational structure of Russian archaeological science is also being modified. In 1991, the Institute of Archeology was divided: its Leningrad branch was transformed into the Institute of the History of Material Culture. Today, along with these two leading academic institutions, the basic archaeological institutions in the Russian Federation are such institutions of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS) as the Institute of Archeology and Ethnography in Novosibirsk, the Institute of History and Archeology in Yekaterinburg, the Institute of History, Archeology and Ethnography of the Peoples of the Far East in Vladivostok, the republican branches of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the republican academies proper. Archaeological research is also carried out by the leading museums of the country (the State Hermitage Museum, the State Historical Museum, etc.), the departments of archeology and archaeological laboratories at Moscow State University, St. Petersburg State University, at the universities of some other cities, as well as a number of other state institutions. The right to conduct excavations and other archaeological research throughout Russia is granted only to state organizations. Documentation on field research and the resulting collections are transferred for safekeeping to the relevant state institutions. A new trend in modern domestic (as well as foreign) archeology has become the intensification of the study of the monument, the involvement of a wide range of natural sciences and their methods in order to obtain maximum information with minimal destruction of the monument. In this regard, in recent decades, geoinformation technologies have been actively introduced into archaeological research. As for the further development of archaeological theory, since the mid-1950s. and to the present time, in addition to the ethnological direction, a whole series of other directions has been formed and is developing in Soviet and Russian archeology. " Archaeological history", or, according to the figurative definition of A.V. Artsikhovsky, "history armed with a shovel", considers archeology as a branch of historical science. The main goal of this direction is the reconstruction of the past on the basis of the study of material antiquities, which, like written sources, carry certain historical information. At the same time, "archaeological history", in close cooperation with linguistics, also studies fossil written sources (for example, ancient texts on stone slabs, inscriptions on ceramic vessels and coins, ancient Russian birch bark letters, etc.). IN " sociological archeology"The idealized sociological model of the ancient society is taken as the basis of the study. Technological archeology"focused on the use of objective methods in the study of archaeological materials, such as trace science, metallography, spectral analysis, radiocarbon dating, geophysics, etc. In " ecological archeology"due to the integration of natural and human sciences, ancient society is considered as an integral system in dynamic interaction with the environment. Other areas are also developing. Thus, Soviet archaeological science in the post-revolutionary years grew up on the foundation of pre-revolutionary Russian archeology. Since the mid 1930s. creative freedom continued to be constrained by the monopoly of state ideology, reinforced by various, including repressive, measures to which many archaeologists were subjected. In the post-war years and up to the mid-1980s. archaeological research on new buildings was carried out on an ever-increasing scale Conclusion
Archeology is a branch of historical science that studies the past of mankind mainly on the basis of material historical sources, or archaeological monuments in the broad sense of the word. Material sources include both specific ancient objects, as well as structures, structures, all traces and consequences of human labor and any anthropogenic activity. The need for archeology is primarily due to the presence of periods, aspects or phenomena of human history that are not reflected in written sources or in oral information. At present, the concept of "archaeology" is interpreted ambiguously. A number of scientists, especially abroad, apply this term mainly to field and cameral practice - to excavations, to the description and direct analysis of material sources. In this case, the branch of historical science that uses and generalizes the results of these works is called prehistory and protohistory. Soviet archaeological science in the post-revolutionary years grew on the foundation of pre-revolutionary Russian archeology. Since the mid 1930s. creative freedom continued to be constrained by the monopoly of state ideology, reinforced by various, including repressive, measures to which many archaeologists were subjected. In the post-war years and up to the mid-1980s. archaeological research on new buildings was carried out on an ever-increasing scale At present, in Russian archeology, in addition to the ethnological direction, a whole series of other directions has been formed and is developing, which consider archeology as a department of historical science. The main goal of this direction is the reconstruction of the past on the basis of the study of material antiquities, which, like written sources, carry certain historical information. Literature
1.Archeology: Textbook / Edited by Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences V.L. Yanina. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow. un-ta, 2006. - 608 p. 2.Martynov A.I. Archeology: Textbook. - M.: Higher. school, 1996. - 415 p. .Archeology and Numismatics of Belarus: Encyclopedia. / Belarus. Encycle; Redkal: V.V. Getaў i insh. - Minsk: BelEn, 1993 - 702 p.
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