Modern economy and its real name. Summary: Modern Russian economy. The concept of an economic system

Topic: "Change in the real economy and development

economic theory: peculiarity and interrelation"

Introduction

Economic theory is one of the oldest sciences. It has always attracted the attention of scientists and all educated people. This is explained by the fact that the study of economic theory is the realization of the objective necessity of knowing the motives of people's economic activity, the laws of economic management at all times - from Aristotle and Xenophon to the present day.

First of all, I would like to limit my task. The concept of "economic theory" is too broad in content to be operational. Is it possible to talk about the unity of theory in the diversity of views and styles of research that we observe today? I believe that it is still possible to speak about the unity of the main stream of economic research related to one decade, since the vast majority of them rely on the same basic conceptual and model tools. This, in particular, is evidenced by the similarity of numerous lecture courses on micro- and macroeconomics.

Today, the interest of educated people in economic theory has not only not dried up, but is even increasing. And this is explained by the global changes that are taking place all over the world.

The deep crisis of all aspects of the life of society could not but be reflected in the current state of economic science. Its crisis as a particular form of manifestation of the general crisis is natural, since economic theory is a reflection of the economic life of society. As the history of the development of economic theory testifies, it is economic crises that have always served as a powerful impetus for its development.

The creators of modern economic theory were well aware of the difficulties facing it. In one of his works, R. Lucas writes:

"After all, these are just notes on some properties of mathematical models, completely fictional worlds invented by economists. Is it possible to acquire knowledge about reality with a pen and paper? Of course, there is something else: some of the data that I cited are the results of many years of research projects, and all the models I have considered have important implications that could have been, but have not been compared with observations.Despite this, I believe that the model-building process in which we are involved is absolutely necessary, and I cannot imagine how without it, we could organize and use the mass of available data." (Lucas (1993), p.271)).

This quotation raises questions that are also crucial in the context of this paper: Should economics be based on the results of research in economic theory, or on other research standards? Is the current state of economic science the result of its previous centuries of research? Is it possible to realize the "physical" ideal of scientific theory? How does economics influence the development of theoretical sciences?

1. The concept of economic theory.

Subject of study of economic theory

Economic theory - theoretical ideas about economic processes and phenomena, about the functioning of the economy, about economic relations, based, on the one hand, on logic, on historical experience and, on the other hand, on theoretical concepts, the views of economists.

The subject of economic theory is the study of relations between people regarding the production, exchange, distribution and consumption of material goods and services as a result of the efficient use of resources to satisfy unlimited needs.

As a methodological science, economic theory, first of all, is called upon to investigate the issues of the place of production and exchange in the development of society. Mankind cannot exist without consuming and exchanging the results of labor: material, spiritual and social benefits. The constant increase in their production and receipt in exchange forms the economic growth of society. It most concentratedly reflects the results of social labor, its moral and spiritual principles. Economic growth is an indicator and source of economic dynamics.

Economic growth is the core of economic theory as a science. It characterizes the general state of the economy and its possible dynamics. Through the prism of economic growth, various approaches and views of economists are analyzed, and their own position is formed on the adequacy of the economy to historical, national and other traditions.

Taking into account the use of potential opportunities for economic growth, the formation and functioning of commodity production and market relations in specific socio-historical conditions, as well as alternative theories of value formation based on the marginal utility of a good and service, are considered.

The object of study of economic theory is the analysis of the relationship between the mechanism of market functioning and the presence of competition in the markets, the degree of monopolization of individual economic areas, forms and methods of competition, ways and means of reforming market relations. The resumption of production and its economic growth occurs at the individual level (firm level) and on a social scale.

Structural economic theory includes microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics studies the behavior of individual producers, the patterns of formation of entrepreneurial capital and the competitive environment. In the center of her analysis are the prices of individual goods, costs, costs, the mechanism of the functioning of the company, pricing, labor motivation. Macroeconomics deals with the study of the national economic system on the basis of emerging micro-proportions. The object of its study is the national product, the general price level, inflation, and employment. Macroproportions, as it were, grow out of microproportions, but acquire an independent character.

Microeconomics and macroeconomics are interdependent in the real economic environment and interact with each other.

Despite the different levels, micro - and macroeconomics in the general analysis and use of its results are subject to a single goal - the study of patterns and factors of economic growth in order to meet the needs of society. These are separate disciplines of a unified economic theory that have a common subject of study.

In the general system of sciences, economic theory performs certain functions.

1. First of all, it performs a cognitive function, as it must study and explain the processes and phenomena of the economic life of society. However, it is not enough to simply state the existence of certain phenomena.

2. Practical - development of principles and methods of rational management, scientific substantiation of the economic strategy for the implementation of reforms in economic life, etc.

3. Predictive-pragmatic, involving the development and identification of scientific forecasts and prospects for social development.

These functions of economic theory are carried out in the daily life of a civilized society. Economic science plays a huge role in shaping the economic environment, determining the scale and directions of economic dynamics, optimizing sectoral structures of production and exchange, and raising the general living standards of the population on a national scale.

Economic theory and real economy are interconnected. Science develops under the influence of changes in the economic life of countries, the latter, in turn, is based on the experience of previous economic situations, solved or analyzed and consolidated in the form of economic theorems, theses, conclusions and postulates. Thus, relying on the experience of our predecessors, we are developing the economy; it also replenishes and changes economic science.

2. History of the development of economic theory

2.1. Origins of economic theory

To understand the essence of economic theory, its degree of development at the moment, the relationship with the real economy, it is necessary to know the history of its emergence. Economic theory has gone through a number of stages in its development.

1. The origins of economic science should be sought in the teachings of the thinkers of the countries of the East, Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Xenophon (430-354 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC) for the first time introduce the term "economy" into scientific circulation, which means the art of housekeeping. Aristotle subdivided two terms: "economy" (natural economic activity associated with the production of products) and "chremantics" (the art of making wealth, making money).

2. Economic theory as a science took shape during the formation of capitalism, the emergence of initial capital, and above all in the sphere of trade. Economic science responds to the requirements of the development of trade with the emergence of mercantilism - the first direction of political economy.

3. The teaching of the mercantilists is reduced to determining the source of the origin of wealth. They derived the source of wealth only from trade and the sphere of circulation. Wealth itself was identified with money. Hence the name "mercantile" - monetary.

4. The teaching of William Petty (1623-1686) is a bridge from mercantilists to classical political economy. His merit is that he first declared labor and land to be the source of wealth.

5. A new direction in the development of political economy is represented by the Physiocrats, who were the spokesmen for the interests of the landowners. The main representative of this trend was Francois Quesnay (1694-1774). The limitation of his teaching is that the only source of wealth was labor in agriculture.

6. Economic science was further developed in the works of Adam Smith (1729-1790) and David Ricardo (1772-1783). A. Smith in the book "A Study on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (1777) systematized the entire amount of economic knowledge accumulated by that time, created the doctrine of the social division of labor, revealed the mechanism of the free market, which he called the "invisible hand". David Ricardo continued to develop the theory of A. Smith in his work "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation" (1809-1817). He showed that the only source of value is the labor of the worker, which underlies the income of various classes (wages, profits, interest, rent).

7. Based on the highest achievements of classical political economy, K. Marx (1818-1883) revealed the laws of development of capitalism, its internal source of self-propulsion - contradictions; created the doctrine of the dual nature of labor embodied in the product; the doctrine of surplus value; showed the historically coming character of capitalism as a formation.

2.2. Modern aspects of the development of economic theory

The modern style of theorizing in economics has developed over the past 50 years, although brilliant examples of this style appeared in the twenties and thirties of the last century. It is enough to mention the names of F. Ramsey, I. Fischer, A. Wald, J. Hicks, E. Slutsky, L. Kantorovich, J. von Neumann. But the turning point came in the 1950s. The emergence of game theory (Neumann and Morgenshtern (1944)), social choice theory (Arrow (1951)) and the development of a mathematical model of general economic equilibrium (Arrow, Debreu (1954), McKenzie (1954), Debreu( 1959)). In subsequent years, the number of studies devoted to the development of these areas has increased rapidly.

From a methodological point of view, there are several important aspects of the development of economic theory:

1) Improvement of mathematical tools.

There was a rapid development of the mathematical apparatus necessary for the study of the economy, first of all, the theory of extremal problems and specific methods of data analysis, which formed the content of econometrics. In addition, more and more new branches of mathematics were involved in the analysis of economic phenomena. It seems that there is not a single branch of mathematics left that would not find applications in economics.

2) In-depth study and generalization of basic models.

We are talking, for example, about the Arrow-Debreu equilibrium model, the optimal growth model, the overlapping generation model, the Nash equilibrium model, etc. The questions of existence, uniqueness, and stability of their solutions have given rise to an extensive literature. At the same time, the initial hypotheses were improved.

3) Coverage by the theory of new areas of economic life.

The apparatus of equilibrium theory and game theory served as the basis for the creation of modern theories of international trade, taxation and public goods, monetary economics, and the theory of production organizations. The scale and pace of new developments not only do not decrease, but are accelerating. Economic theory penetrates into more and more new areas, finds new areas of application. Experimental economics attempts to test "in the laboratory" the basic postulates of economic behavior.

4) Accumulation of empirical data.

Thanks to computer technology, the unprecedented scale of economic research, the improvement of economic measurement methods, the standardization of national accounts, and the creation of powerful research departments in international credit institutions, there is an avalanche of economic information available to most researchers in developed countries. This information is constantly updated and enriched both through the introduction of new measurable indicators and through the implementation of international standards in developing countries.

5) Changing the "strictness standard".

Over the past half century, the standard of rigor adopted in the economy has changed radically. A typical article in a high-level journal should contain at least one of two things: either a theoretical model substantiation of the main theses, or their econometric testing on empirical material. Texts written in the style of Ricardo or Keynes are extremely rare in the most prestigious journals.

6) The collective nature of generalizing works. The principle of coexistence.

Less and less successful are attempts to create comprehensive economic theories. Each volume features dozens of contributors representing a variety of perspectives and using a variety of tools. The principle of the unity of theory seems to have given way to the principle of the coexistence of competing concepts.

7) "Behavioral" revolution in theoretical macroeconomics.

It is impossible not to note the revolution in theoretical macroeconomics that has taken place over the past two decades. To a large extent, he was stimulated by the "criticism of Lucas" (Lucas (1976)). After many years of almost separate existence of micro- and macroeconomics, a synthetic theory is now being intensively developed.

8) Organizational growth.

There is no stagnation at the organizational level either. The prestige and salary of a qualified economist in the West is relatively high, the number of scientific journals is growing and the number of conferences is increasing. The frequency of contacts, the exchange of scientific and teaching staff between universities, new technologies for the exchange of information have led to the internationalization of economic science. National schools have practically disappeared.

3. Relationship between real economy and economic theory.

3.1. The crisis of economic science.

It would seem that the foregoing testifies rather to the flourishing of economic science than to a period of difficulties. Yet there are clear signs of a crisis in economic theory.

Empirical studies have not led to the discovery of fundamental laws, or at least regularities of a universal nature, which could serve as a basis for theoretical constructions. A number of regularities that were considered empirically proven for decades were subsequently refuted.

The most general theoretical results are in a certain sense negative in nature - these are conclusions that state explicitly or implicitly that the theories under consideration lack postulates in order to get answers to the questions posed.

To verify the validity of this thesis, consider a number of key facts of theoretical economics:

The theory of social choice: the impossibility of rational coordination of interests.

General equilibrium theory: the impossibility of comparative statistics.

Monetary theory: instability of conclusions regarding small variations of postulates, etc.

"My main conclusion is that equally plausible models lead to fundamentally different results," Jérôme Stein wrote in 1970 in the introduction to his review of monetary growth theory.

Unfortunately, this conclusion is true of almost any fundamental problem of macroeconomics. Is money super neutral? The answer is positive if transaction costs are taken into account through utility functions, as in the Sidraussky model, but negative if their impact on production functions is taken into account; the answer depends on how money is injected into overlapping generation models, on the ability of economic agents to predict the rate of price growth, and so on.

There is nothing surprising in all this, the economic reality is complex. However, it is completely unclear how to use the theory, if for its application in each specific case it is necessary to undertake a laborious study in order to establish which of the theoretical options is most adequate to the real state of affairs. For example, when considering the recession in the process of Russian reforms, we are faced with phenomena that are characteristic of both Keynesian and classical economic theory, and in addition to this, with non-standard behavior of economic agents, so there are no ready-made theoretical tools for analyzing recession.

Of course, economists try to construct a theory for separate classes of utility functions. The theory is divided into sub-theories, the possibility of their application in specific situations remains unexplored.

The economic reality is too multivariate and the rate of its change is ahead of the pace of study.

Economic conclusions turn out to be unstable relative to "small" variations in the initial assumptions.

Apparently, the diversity of economic phenomena cannot be explained on the basis of a small number of fundamental regularities.

This led, as noted above, to the replacement of the principle of the unity of theory by the principle of the coexistence of competing concepts.

3.2. The influence of economic theory on the modern economy of Russia

If it is true that the main reason is the absence of universal economic laws, the extraordinary diversity and rapid variability of economic objects, then perhaps the way out lies in a fundamentally different organization of scientific research. At present, both in the natural sciences and in economics, the leading role belongs to individual researchers. In physics, chemistry, biology, they make discoveries, but in economics, as Malinvo noted, they do not. It is possible that economic discoveries, by their very nature, must be of a short-term nature. Such a discovery could be, for example, the discovery of the causes of the current recession in Russia and the development of effective measures to overcome it. But if the period of life of the phenomenon under study is 4 - 5 years, then the individual researcher has too little chance of success.

Alternatively, one can imagine the following organization of economic research, including a host institute, research teams, and advisory groups. The base institute creates a research environment, including databases, survey systems of economic agents, information processing systems, and other means of economic research. The research environment includes a small number of highly qualified experts in key areas. The Institute organizes research teams for a limited period to solve specific scientific problems. Groups of advisers are created at economic management bodies (for example, ministries) and large firms. The interaction of researchers and advisers should ensure the rapid and efficient use of scientific results.

It is worth noting that such giants as the World Bank and the IMF actually use similar principles; the creation of their own analytical groups has become a common practice for many types of government and private organizations; The system of grants widely practiced in the West involves the creation of problematic research teams for a relatively short period of time. In other words, all elements of the system outlined above already exist. It must be realized that the economy is an unusually rapidly changing object, the study of which requires a special organization.

Awareness of the fact of the crisis of economic theory and understanding of its nature is especially important for Russia. Russian society in both 1917 and 1992. partly a victim of the natural scientific form of economic knowledge, the belief that there is a source where an exact and correct answer is found. Now comes the disappointment. However, even now one still hears references to non-existent theoretical evidence, for example, a negative relationship between inflation and growth. For Russia, which is looking for a way out of the crisis, a balanced attitude to economic theory is especially important. Economists themselves must take care of this and not create inflated expectations.

The history of theoretical research teaches caution in the implementation of economic transformations. Radical changes, as a rule, should leave room for adjustment and, therefore, be extended over time.

Another aspect of the problem is related to the profound backwardness of economic science in Russia. We habitually talk about the backwardness of technology, but remember science only in connection with its difficult financial situation. It must be admitted that for eighty years the gap between Western and Russian economic research technologies has widened. Now there is hope for its reduction. Economic education is being updated, translations of Western textbooks are being published, and young people are appearing who have received diplomas from high-level Western universities. The statistical service is improving, albeit slowly. This is a move in the right direction. The Russian economy is a gigantic laboratory where, over the course of several years, institutional transformations take place that would take decades in other countries and at other times. We can and must alleviate the burden of these transformations, and for this it is necessary to understand them to the extent that the available tools allow. The synthesis of institutionalism and modern theory of economic growth is an exciting line of research, which, perhaps, will expand the scope of the existing methodology.

What has been said about economic theory does not lead to the conclusion that it is useless, or that one must look for one's own paths, not paying attention to what has been achieved. Such an approach will inevitably lead to a senseless repetition of the past. On the other hand, we should not just catch up with the express, rushing into the unknown distance. It is necessary to look for our own ways in cooperation with the world community of economists.

Conclusion

Economic theory is not a set of ready-made recommendations applicable directly to economic policy. It is more of a method than a teaching, an intellectual tool, a technique of thinking, helping the one who owns it to come to the right conclusions.

John Maynard Keynes

The modern style of theorizing in economics has developed over the past 50 years. From a methodological point of view, several important aspects of the development of economic theory can be distinguished: improvement of mathematical tools, in-depth study and generalization of basic models, coverage of new areas of economic life by the theory, accumulation of empirical data, change in the "rigor standard", the collective nature of generalizing works, "behavioral" revolution in theoretical macroeconomics, organizational growth.

The rapid pace of economic change and the qualitative diversity of forms of economic organization were circumstances that were well known at the dawn of economics. In this regard, theoretical economics differs both from the natural sciences (where fundamental regularities have been found) and from other humanitarian disciplines, where the methods of analysis have not yet been perfected to such an extent as to reveal the fundamental limitations of their capabilities.

The volatility of economic realities is partly rooted in the reciprocal influence of economic theories on economic behavior. The conclusions from economic theories quickly become the property of the masses of economic agents and influence the formation of their expectations.

The relationship between economic theory and the real economy is obvious. Science develops under the influence of changes in the economic life of countries, the latter, in turn, is based on the experience of previous economic situations, solved or analyzed and consolidated in the form of economic theorems, theses, conclusions and postulates. Thus, relying on the experience of our predecessors, we are developing the economy; it also replenishes and changes economic science.

There is no doubt that economic theory performs useful functions, providing a necessary tool for understanding reality. There is also no doubt that it is possible to directly use this tool only in relatively few cases.

The Russian economy is a gigantic laboratory where, over the course of several years, institutional transformations take place that would take decades in other countries and at other times. We can and must alleviate the burden of these transformations, and for this it is necessary to understand them to the extent that the available tools allow. The synthesis of institutionalism and modern theory of economic growth is an exciting line of research, which, perhaps, will expand the scope of the existing methodology.

What has been said about economic theory does not lead to the conclusion that it is useless, or that one must look for one's own paths, not paying attention to what has been achieved. Such an approach will inevitably lead to a senseless repetition of the past. It is necessary to look for our own ways in cooperation with the world community of economists.

List of used literature

Bartenev S.A. "Economic Theories and Schools (History and Modernity): A Course of Lectures". - M.: Beck Publishing House, 1996. - 352 p.

Borisov EF Fundamentals of economic theory. – M.: new wave, 2004.

Glazyev S.Yu. Science support is a priority of Russia's economic policy. M., 2000.

Nosova S.S. – M.: Humanitarian. ed. center VLADOS, 2005. - 519 p. - (Textbook for universities).

Path to the 21st century: Strategic problems and prospects of the Russian economy. - M.: Economics, 1999. - 793 p. - (Systemic problems of Russia).

Raizberg B.A. "Economics course". M: Infra-M, 1999

Sergeev M. Paradox of economic policy. M., 2002.

Patterns and features of the development of macroeconomics at the present stage. The main systemic signs of the crisis of macroeconomics as a science, unverifiable theories. Description of the main directions of overcoming crisis phenomena in the Russian economy.

The origin and development of economic theory. Theoretical doctrine of the physiocrats. Subject and object of study of general economic theory. The main problems of macroeconomics. Basic methods of economic research and functions of economic theory.

The emergence and development of economic theory. Schools of economic theory. The subject and functions of economic theory. Methods of economic research. Economic laws. Problems of the economic organization of society.

Ministry of General and Vocational Education of the Russian Federation Vladimir State University Department of Economic Theory Test No. 1

What is the subject of study of economic theory, who and how is connected through economic relations. Types of economic ties, types and types of economic ties between people. The main stages of the historical development of the subject of economic theory.

Theoretical features of the development of economic thought in Russia in the 20-90s of the twentieth century. Formation of a powerful economic and mathematical direction by domestic scientists. Marginalism, economics (neoclassics), institutionalism, Keynesianism and monetarism.

The origin and main stages in the development of economic theory. The main directions of modern economic thought. Neoclassical, Keynesian, institutional and sociological trends in modern economic thought.

The concept and subject of the theory of state and law. The place of the theory of state and law in the system of social and legal sciences. Functions of the theory of state and law. Techniques and methods of scientific research of state and law.

The subject of economic theory. The origin and development of economic theory. Economic laws and economic categories. Different approaches to the analysis of economic dynamics. Basic functions and research methods of economic theory.

The emergence of economic theory. The history of economics as a science. Subject and method of economic theory. Economic theory is basically an empirical science, that is, it is based on the facts of real life. Economic theory: functions, research methods.

The history of the origin and development of economic theory, its origins and main stages. The main scientific schools, directions and sections in modern economic theory. Subject, method and functions of economic theory. The problem of economic crime.

The evolution of economic science since ancient times. The concept, essence and methods of economics as a science. Stages of development, criteria, approaches and scientific schools of modern economic policy and theory. Methodological approaches and economic problems.

The subject of economic theory. The origin and development of economic theory. Subject of study of economic theory. Economic research and their methods. Stages of knowledge of the economy. Methods of economic research.

The concept and essence of economic categories and laws, their main elements. Subject, functions of economic theory, modern directions of its development and place in the system of social sciences and humanities. Characteristics of the main economic goals of society.

Features of the origin and development of economic theory. Generalization of the main methods of economic theory: dialectical method, methods of abstraction, deduction and induction, assumptions "ceteris paribus", analysis and synthesis. Analysis of the method of economics.

The beginning of the classical school. Physiocrats. Problems solved by physiocrats. Views of the classical school. Leading countries of Western Europe in the period of manufacturing capitalism. Adam Smith is the founder of classical political economy. David Ricardo.

Mankind has been struggling for thousands of years to solve the problems of wealth, power, and creativity. Economists-theorists focus their efforts mainly around the problems of wealth. They are looking for answers to the questions: what is wealth? How does it arise? Why does it increase or decrease over time? And on others...

Theoretical foundations of economic science, as well as their development through the prism of the history of economic doctrines. Causal relationships of economic phenomena and processes arising in the sphere of economic activity of economic entities in retrospect.

At the Polytechnic Institute, we techies were taught a short course in economics. After understandable formalized technical disciplines, this science seemed to be a collection of primitive concepts, which unsuccessfully tried to explain the complex processes taking place in society. Much later, the reason why these attempts remained unsuccessful became clear to me. Clarity began to appear after I drew attention to the history of the formation of foreign, and then domestic economic thought. It turned out that even the first economists were not initially focused on the study of real socio-economic processes. Economics, like no other science, has depended and continues to depend on progress in understanding many of the fundamental concepts that determine the general culture of thinking among people. Her development was always hampered for reasons beyond her control, and she could not change this situation on her own. Without a general progress in the culture of thinking, the economy, as it began with works devoted to financial and accounting operations, has remained at this qualitative level. Therefore, financiers and accountants are in demand, while academic economists remain aloof from real economic processes. And it is no coincidence that, having passed a certain historical path of its evolution, the science of economics is now more and more inclined towards psychology, jurisprudence, civil and criminal law. As a result, the “commodity”, which is still the cornerstone of this science, is turning before our eyes into a right transferred to another person, legally justified in something. As they say - it was yours, but it became ours! And that's it! For the one who transmitted the latter, all the achievements of the economy here and end completely, forever. But if suddenly someone needs it, then not academic economists, but lawyers who have become proficient in law, will always be found and explain to all participants in such an exchange its expediency and legality. The laws of modern economic science are unique in that they are absolutely subjective, because they are closed by a certain archaic culture of people's thinking. Archaism lies in the fact that thinking does not distinguish the main thing - the meaning of collective labor. For such thinking, the meaning of the collective labor of all people is limited by the design of the elite. Each elite strives to keep people's thinking unchanged, in accordance with historically formed traditions, through politics, science, religion, culture and, in particular, economics. The problem is that the archaic culture of thinking that has developed among people everywhere is artificially restrained and remains qualitatively unchanged for centuries. And it is not surprising that all economists agreed in a single opinion to consider not the meaning, the intention of collective labor, but the movement of goods and everything connected with it. It is clear that in science, where such a culture of thinking is taken as a basis for its adherents, there is no talk of any collective work and cannot be. For them, as well as for the former Minister of Finance, Doctor of Economics A.Ya. Lifshits “The economy is like a woman. Can you understand it?"

1. When and how did the real economy emerge

In domestic and foreign textbooks on economics (especially on economic theory) nothing is said about when and why the economic activity of people arose.

Some students give their own answer to this question. They claim that the economy was "discovered" by the outstanding scientist of Ancient Greece, Aristotle. But in this answer, Aristotle's definition of the term "economy" is erroneously identified with the practical process of creating a real (from Latin guas - existing in the actual state of things) economy.

At the same time, it is very important to get the right idea about the economy that existed from the very beginning and is developing at the present time. Otherwise, it is impossible to determine the historical timing of the development of human economic activity, to find out the qualitative changes in various periods of economic development, including the 21st century.

Therefore, in the lecture there is a task of an intellectual nature 1.1 (the first digit indicates the number of the section, the second - the number of the task. In each topic, tables and figures are indicated by one regular digit).

Task 1.1. When and how did the economy start?

To solve this problem, you need:

a) use the factual data of historical science about the beginning of the existence of human society;

b) know what abilities people needed to organize economic activities;

c) establish the reasons that prompted a person to constantly engage in economics.

Readers who have completed this task can check the results obtained with the answer placed at the end of Section I of the lecture course.

Continuing to clarify the essence and role of the real economy, we will proceed to clarify its main goal and ways to achieve it.

2. The main goal of economic activity of people

Undoubtedly, the purpose of the economy is to create such goods that are necessary for the life of people. By the good it is customary to understand that which satisfies the needs of a person, meets his vital tasks. The whole variety of goods can be divided into two types:

a) natural goods - products of nature (forest, land, fruits of plants and trees, etc.);

b) economic benefits - the result of the creative activity of people.

In turn, natural goods used by people are divided into two types:

ready-made consumer goods, referred to as "gifts of nature";

natural resources (funds, stocks), from which the means of production are created.

With regard to economic benefits, they are divided into two types:

means of production - natural substances used for the manufacture of consumer goods;

consumer goods are consumer goods. A visual representation of the interdependence of all types of goods

gives rice. one.

Shown in fig. 1 the difference between the two types of goods of material production indicates two main divisions:

a) production of means of production;

b) production of consumer goods.

To better understand this division of the production of goods, let's try to solve the following problem. This will require the use of personal experience and business practice.

Task 1.2. What economic goods are the means of production,

and which ones are commodities:

a) granulated sugar; b) a car; c) oil extracted from wells;

d) personal computers; d) sweets.

Now, having some ideas about the internal structure and results of economic activity, we will proceed to the important question of the significance of the main link in the real economy - production.

3. Importance of production for economic development

The most important principle (from lat. rpnarsht - basis) of economic activity is to ensure its continuity. On this depends the continued maintenance of human life. In turn, this vital necessity is ensured thanks to the non-stop development of production.

Production serves as the initial link of the entire chain of management. Take, for example, a simple peasant economy. The producer first grows, say, tomatoes. Then he distributes them: he keeps some for his family, and sells the rest. In the market, tomatoes that are superfluous for the family are exchanged for other products needed in the household (say, meat, shoes). Finally, material goods reach their final destination - personally

Task 1.3. Depict graphically the main options for the dynamics of production.

After comparing the three options for possible changes in the state of production, you can easily find the most preferable change. It is the progressive development of production activity. What does this progress mean?

4. New needs as the driving force of the economy

Now we have to consider such an integral part of the real economy, which is included in the mechanism of its movement. It's about the needs of the people. Needs are the need or lack of something necessary to maintain the life of a person, a social group and society as a whole.

Modern civilization (the current stage of development of the material and spiritual culture of society) knows many different needs. They are divided into the following types:

physiological needs (food, clothing, housing, etc.);

the need for security (protection from external enemies and criminals, help in case of illness, etc.);

the need for social contacts (communication with people who have the same interests; in friendship, etc.);

the need for respect (respect from other people, the acquisition of a certain social position);

the need for self-development (improvement of all capabilities and abilities).

A very characteristic feature of human needs is their elasticity (flexibility, extensibility). This predetermines their rapid and significant variability. It is also important to note that, as regards the upper limit of the growth of all needs and demands, man is strikingly different from any animal whose ultimate desire is to satisfy only natural biological needs. Humans don't have that limit.

Under favorable economic and other conditions, needs are most capable of elevation - unlimited growth in quantitative and qualitative terms.

At certain periods of his life, every person has tendencies towards an increase in needs. In this regard, the reader of the textbook, apparently, can solve another intellectual problem.

Task 1.4. How are the needs raised in society?

Solving this problem allows us to better understand the following circumstances. With the spiral movement of production and consumption (see Fig. 1 in the Answers to Intellectual Problems), the process of raising the needs of people vertically (raising them in qualitative terms) and horizontally (the necessary expansion of the production of new generations of economic goods) begins.

However, with such a rise in the level of society's needs, it turns out that the previously achieved level of production is not able to satisfy new social needs. As a result, the main contradiction of the real economy arises and becomes aggravated; the discrepancy between the new state of needs and outdated production deepens.

It is quite obvious that in order to resolve such a contradiction, it is necessary to radically restructure production. How to implement this transformation of the economy?

5. Ways to transform production

Some authors of textbooks on economic theory uniquely define the production possibilities of society. They argue that the needs of people grow without limit, but economic resources are always limited. They see the way out of this impasse in the following changes. When new needs arise, it is necessary to redistribute resources: to reduce the output of old goods in order to create new products.

Is this assertion true or false?

To find the correct answer to this question, it is important for us to solve the following problem.

V Problem 1.5. What are the driving forces behind production?

After finding out the answer to the intellectual task, we can understand what and how should be changed when transforming the economy.

Depending on the role of factors of production in the development of the economy, they can be divided into: traditional and progressive.

Traditional are the conditions of economic activity that have arisen in previous periods of time and become increasingly obsolete.

Progressive conditions are those that are many times superior to weakly changing factors both in qualitative and quantitative terms.

From the history of the real economy, it is known that from the moment of its inception and for about nine millennia, the traditional and predominant production was the physical labor of people and manual labor tools used to develop natural resources. And only in the ХУ1-ХУШ centuries. a new era has begun in the development of factors of production. Mankind has begun to use the creative power of a qualitatively new factor of progress - the achievements of science and technology - on an ever-larger scale.

Science and technology gave rise to revolutionary changes in production processes, which began to be carried out through the use of machines, chemical and other methods. The limited possibilities of human power were replaced by the forces of nature, routine methods of work - by the conscious application of natural science. As a result, qualitative transformations have sharply accelerated in accordance with the newly emerging needs of society. For the first time such transformations were quantified in specific economic indicators. They were indicators of labor productivity and production efficiency.

Labor productivity is measured by the number of products created by an employee in a certain time. It is characteristic that if in the initial period of the existence of agriculture one worker could create products for two people, then in the 20th century. in the most developed countries, one worker created food for 20 people.

Production efficiency (Ep) can be measured using the indicator:

where B is the volume of output (at the enterprise, in the country);

P is the amount of resources expended.

From all that has been said, the following conclusions are obvious. If new needs arise in society, they become a powerful stimulus for technological progress. In turn, the progress of engineering and technology causes a completely natural saving of resources per unit of output, or an increase in production efficiency.

However, this causal relationship is opposed by a completely different trend. The fact is that, firstly, the rise of needs for a certain time ends when a certain limiting level is reached. Needs cease to develop vertically and horizontally. Secondly, the technological progress that has begun develops unevenly and exhausts its possibilities over a certain period. All this again leads to an aggravation of the basic contradiction of practical economics. Thus, historically, the need to transfer the production of economic goods to a higher orbit is brewing.

Throughout economic history, three stages of the development of production have arisen (three orbits of their movement have arisen). Their differences from each other can be seen in Table. 1-3.

As is known from topic I, 10 thousand years ago, the Neolithic (typical of the New Stone Age) revolution took place, and with it the agrarian (agricultural) revolution. People learned how to grind stone tools well and use them to create various products from bone and wood. The agricultural revolution is based on two great discoveries - agriculture (in the beginning in the form of primitive tillage and grain crops) and pastoralism (taming wild animals and raising them as livestock). Later, food products were created using more productive metal technical means (the plow and wheel were invented).

The manufacturing economy favored a sharp increase in population. In the Neolithic era, the growth rate of the world's population almost tripled. In modern times, population growth accelerated even more, and the level of its needs increased. This came in sharp contrast to the limited possibilities inherent in manual production. This contradiction was overcome at the second stage of production (Table 2).

table 2

Second stage of production

The following qualitatively new processes are characteristic of the second stage of production:

the main thing is mechanized industrial production;

industry, on the basis of machine technology, is transforming other major branches of the economy;

rapid growth of cities: up to 2/3 of all inhabitants of the country live in them;

important was the transition to new sources of energy (from steam technology to the use of electricity and internal combustion engines).

Associated with the new stage of the economy is a new great increase in population: the population of the world (650 million in 1650) has grown sevenfold.

However, the achievements of the industrial economy are clearly insufficient for the current stage of development of needs. After all, with mechanized labor, the worker often operates one machine. And he is not able to constantly ensure the high quality of products, without which it is impossible to create the latest technology. Industrialized countries are increasingly in need of natural raw materials and energy. As a result, a deep contradiction has developed between the relatively limited production possibilities and a completely new - in quantitative and qualitative terms - level of needs. This contradiction is resolved in the course that began in the 40-50s. 20th century grandiose scientific and technological revolution (NTR), which opened an unusually promising era of economic development. Instead of traditional natural substances and fuels, it created many new (unparalleled in the biosphere) types of materials and energy carriers (Table 3).

Modern mankind is accustomed to operating with a number of terms directly related to management activities, the political system, way of life and society. As an example, we can cite such definitions as "gross product", "import", "export", "taxation" and others. Along with them, there is such a thing as the economy, which is operated today not only in the field of politics, the media, but also among the ordinary population.

Origin and meaning of the term

Etymologically, this concept goes back to the Greek language. The simplest morphological analysis of this word allows us to speak of its two-component nature. The first component is directly related to the definition of the law, the second - to the economy. Thus, we can say that initially the economy is a way of organizing. To be more precise, originally the term meant housekeeping in accordance with the norms and rules established by law.

Features of the original interpretation

Attention should be paid to the fact that the primary meaning of the concept was significantly different from the current one. This is due to the peculiarities of the organization of ancient Greece as a whole. Under the economy was understood, first of all, it was home economics, and not its popular manifestation, to which modern society is accustomed. Thus, initially, economics is the art of subsistence management.

It was this meaning of the term that was included in the first explanatory dictionaries and, in a sense, has survived to this day. The very concept of economics was introduced into everyday speech by the ancient Greek philosopher Xenophon.

Value expansion

As you know, the world does not stand still, so any terminological and ontological phenomenon sooner or later acquires new meanings and interpretations. The semantic properties of this or that word are gradually expanding, transforming and adjusting to the needs of the existing society.

In the modern world, the economy is a much broader, voluminous concept and phenomenon, something that existed in the minds of the ancient Greeks.

The first understanding of modern man

Like any other phenomenon of this kind, the concept considered in this article has received several interpretations at once. In its most general form, the economy is a system used by a particular state and all of humanity to ensure optimal life, form and improve the conditions of its own existence.

In this case, we mean not only any material resources and the conditions for their action on the territory of a particular country, but also the totality of all material, spiritual goods, all kinds of objects and things, the existence of which is aimed at improving the standard of living, ensuring movement forward with point of view of the development of the national economy in the most general sense of the word.

Scientific component

The concept of economics as a science stands apart, based on the concept described above. In this case, we mean a certain abstract body of knowledge acquired by mankind and each country in particular about the features of the organization of this very national economy, ways to improve the quality of life, options for formalizing state and interstate relations.

In this context, the concept of economics as a science is closely related to such sciences as sociology, psychology and, of course, political science.

Species differentiation

As can be seen from the above, both science and the phenomenon itself, the subject of its study is a kind of system - multi-level and complex. Branches of the economy can be very different and belong to one or another sector of the state system. In the question of studying, attention can be focused on market relations or the peculiarities of farming. The study can be aimed at a comparative analysis of the patterns of organization of different states and the whole world as a whole. The modern economy opens up the widest scope for research in this respect.

Industry division

The choice as an object and subject of study indicates the presence of a clear division of the economy as a whole into its certain levels and types. Each of them requires a detailed study and tracking in order to draw up an adequate picture and apply the necessary measures to improve the quality of life of the city, the country and the whole world as a whole.

Branches of the economy are formed as a result of an objective historical process, the development of the state and society. This term should be understood as a certain set of single-order, similar in their structure of economic enterprises. Combining and delimiting occurs according to the principle of commonality in relation to the organization or products. Each specialized industry, in turn, is divided into smaller structures. Correlating with each other, they form a number of intersectoral complexes, the correct operation of which is the guarantor of a stable and developing economy.

world space

In this case, the main, global array of the economy, the highest point of its structure, is meant. The world economy is a set of national economies and industries of all countries of the globe in their dynamics, development and expansion.

This concept can be called the most abstract, since it is not tied to a specific area, structure, industry. By and large, the world economy is a kind of image, an abstraction that requires study and gives an understanding of the direction of development of a particular structure, system and industry. Tracking it is necessary for the development of international relations, the formation of partner communities, the coordination of the world monetary fund, the acquisition of interstate ties in the field of trade, industry or investing in science.

Second level

The national economy is considered the next in importance and breadth of coverage. It is formed by 2 groups of industries, united according to the principle of similarity of scope. In this case, we mean the range of industries responsible for the social sphere of existence, and those that form the material production of the country.

The former include the system of healthcare, education, social benefits, tourism, public services and sports. The material sector includes the construction sector, the transport system, communications, domestic and foreign trade.

Each national economy includes a micro and macro level, and if in the first case we are talking about the coordination and regulation of internal processes due to particulars, in the second we are talking about integrity, the general level of development without being tied to a specific education or sphere of production.

The state economy, being regulated at the local level, eventually enters the global totality, the world system.

Modern conditions

Today, humanity lives in the conditions of an already formed system. Considering the features, levels and organization, it can be defined by such a term as a market economy.

This type of relationship is based on the principle of competition, freedom of the consumer and the possibility of choice in the matter of acquiring something. The market economy is based on the right of private property, which is inviolable for a third party, but can be acquired by him in whole or in part.

A characteristic feature of this type of state order can be called freedom in relation to entrepreneurship. Any person can independently start the production of certain goods and provide various services by registering his own organization in the state system to ensure taxation.

In such a situation, the entrepreneur can independently determine the sales market, the cost of the proposed product, its quality and ways of sale. Such freedom ensures the presence of competition, which is the basic, main characteristic of a market economy.

Note that this system operates not only at the state or private (enterprise level), but also at the international level. A typical example is the wholesale supply of gas by Russia or equipment by China to other countries. The process of interaction between countries and interstate unions (for example, the European one) determines the basis of the world economy, its features and development paths. Experts in this field track the dynamics received and, reacting to the information received, work to create a suitable ground for the further development and improvement of the global economy.

Economic growth, market evolution, changes in consumer tastes, social changes and political events can expand or shrink a business space. Numerous business spaces created recently are changing perspectives. These unoccupied territories offer a sea of ​​opportunities for technological and strategic innovators to spot or create them. faster than its competitors. The opportunities are great, but so are the competition and chances of failure.

The era of rapid growth

Today's era of rapid growth is advancing in leaps and bounds, creating new industries and destroying old ones, and accelerating economic growth in the process. Expectations are rising everywhere, creativity is flourishing in all areas. New economies are rapidly industrializing, and everyone is joining the digital revolution, providing unlimited access to information and convenient e-commerce. Ideas, technologies, and capital to meet new needs flow freely.

Entrepreneurial Economics

The new economy opens up unlimited opportunities for entrepreneurship. Also in 2003 in the US, among companies that have reached a large capitalization and are listed on the stock exchange, the share of firms was amazingly high - 61% !!! – that started as a small home business, at the kitchen table of the firm’s founder, with 16% of all listed firms founded with start-up capital less than US$1000.

And today in the United States, more than 20 million self-employed entrepreneurs, using only their brains, already produce products worth more than 1 trillion dollars, i.e. about half of Russia's GDP!

These facts are inspiring evidence of how many entrepreneur can achieve today by building your business on an idea whose time has come.

→ 6+6 Motors Entrepreneur

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change

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capital markets

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New competitive dynamics

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