Political science as a science and academic discipline: history and modernity. Political science as a science and academic discipline. Object and subject of political science Politics as a science and academic discipline
The functions of political science as a science and as an academic discipline have much in common, but there are also certain differences between them. Consider each of the types of functions of political science.
Political science as a science
Political science as a science is a necessary theoretical basis for the further development of political research and for the introduction of scientific developments into real politics. It explores real-life political systems, ways of organizing society and the state, types of political regimes, forms of government, the activities of political parties and public organizations, the state of political consciousness and political culture, patterns of political behavior, problems of the effectiveness and legitimacy of political leadership, ways of forming institutions of power and much more.
Political research creates a certain theoretical and scientific-methodological base necessary for the development of political science itself and for the improvement of the political sphere of society. Scientific knowledge in the field of politics makes it possible to predict and construct political reality, monitor positive and negative trends in the development of political processes and, if necessary, make appropriate adjustments.
Political science as a science can also perform ideological functions, for example, to form certain ideals, needs, values, and thereby consolidate society in order to achieve any goals (for example, building a state of law).
Political science as a scientific discipline
Before political science as an academic discipline is no less important task. In our country, during the periods of domination of totalitarian and authoritarian regimes, the power of political science as an academic discipline did not exist. It was easier for the reactionary regime to manage politically illiterate people.
People's lack of knowledge about politics, about the structure of the political system, about the methods of forming government bodies and their functional purpose, and finally, about their personal rights and freedoms allows all sorts of political adventurers, using demagogy and lies, to carry out their Jesuit experiments with impunity on entire countries and peoples.
The task of political science as an academic discipline is to help people understand all the intricacies of politics, teach them to correctly understand (perceive) the existing social and political system, and adequately respond to the emerging political situation. Political science should contribute to the development of a civic political culture among people so that they are able to protect their rights and interests and at the same time respect the interests and rights of others. It is necessary to instill into people intolerance to any form of manifestation, violence, usurpation of power, to violations of the rights and freedoms of the individual.
Therefore, political education, mass political literacy of people are a necessary condition for building a state of law and the formation of a civil society.
Only in 1989, the Higher Attestation Commission included political science in the list of scientific disciplines. Political science was defined by the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation as an academic discipline in the universities of Russia.
The emergence and development of political science
The first attempts to understand and comprehend politics go back to those distant times when the first political institutions began to emerge in society. The earliest ideas about the causes and functions of state (political) forms of organization of society were of a religious and mythological nature. This, in particular, is evidenced by the ideas of the ancient Egyptians that have come down to us about the divine origin of their rulers (pharaohs). According to ancient Chinese myth, the emperor's power is of divine origin, and he himself is both the son of heaven and the father of his people.
In the VI - IV centuries. BC e. thanks to the works of such famous thinkers of antiquity as Confucius, Plato, Aristotle, political views and ideas begin to acquire an independent conceptual character. The first theoretical categories, definitions (definitions) and whole concepts appeared, which bore philosophical and ethical forms. In the same period, the very concept of "politics" (Aristotle) appears.
In the Middle Ages, political science developed within the framework of a religious concept, the essence of which was reduced to the deified origin of power. The most prominent representatives of this concept are A. Augustine and F. Aquinas.
In modern times, a civil concept of political thought arises. Thanks to the studies of such outstanding thinkers as N. Machiavelli, T. Hobbes, J. Locke, C. Montesquieu and others, the doctrines of politics and the state were raised to a qualitatively new theoretical level. During this period, political science is freed from philosophical, ethical and religious views and is gradually transformed into an independent science.
Political science begins to acquire its modern look from the second half of the 19th century. This is largely connected with the general progress of sociological knowledge, with the development of empirical research methods.
In the same period, political science becomes an independent, independent academic discipline. In 1857, the Department of History and Political Science was established at Columbia College USA. In 1880, the first school of political sciences was organized in the same college. In 1903, the American Political Science Association was created, which still exists today.
In 1949, under the auspices of UNESCO, the International Association of Political Sciences was established. Political science as an academic discipline was introduced into the programs of leading universities in the US and Western Europe. Thus, as an academic discipline, political science finally established itself in the middle of the 20th century.
in Russia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. political science developed quite intensively. A notable contribution to world political thought was made by M. M. Kovalevsky, B. N. Chicherin, P. I. Novgorodtsev, M. V. Ostrogorsky, G. V. Plekhanov, V. I. Lenin and others.
However, after the revolution of 1917 and the establishment of Soviet power, political science was banned. Separate political studies were carried out within the framework of historical materialism, scientific communism, the history of the CPSU, the theory of state and law, but they were so ideologized that they could not give correct answers to the demands of the time.
The place of political science among other social and human sciences
In the modern socio-political system as an integral society, the following interconnected and interdependent subsystems are distinguished: production, or economic, social, spiritual and political. Production the subsystem provides the physical infrastructure, and political - a mechanism for the implementation of the general will and common interest of all the main elements of the system. Social and spiritual the spheres together constitute civil society, which can also be described as a single subsystem. In accordance with the proposed classification, the human society could be conditionally depicted in the form of a diagram shown in Fig. one.
Now, guided by this scheme, we will try to classify the social and human sciences, each of which is designed to study one or another aspect, perspective, component of one of the four subsystems. In this case, we have the following layout:
- A - social sciences, grouped around sociology;
- B - sciences about the spirit (philosophy, cultural studies, religious studies and theology, ethics, aesthetics and art history, etc.);
- C - political sciences;
- D - economic sciences.
In other words, each of the four main subsystems serves as an object of study for an independent block of scientific disciplines.
Rice. 1. Sphere (subsystem): A - social, B - spiritual, C - political,
But this is only the very beginning of the conversation about the classification of the social and human sciences. Difficulties begin immediately as soon as we begin to determine the place of each specific discipline in the system of social and human sciences, to more or less accurately identify the area or subject of its study, the range of topics and problems it covers. Strictly speaking, the social sphere is the object of study of sociology, and the world of the political - of political science. But close examination reveals the extreme difficulty, if not the impossibility, of determining exactly where in Fig. 1 per line AC where the social subsystem ends and where the political subsystem begins. Without clarifying this issue, we cannot, of course, even approximately determine the range of topics and problems covered by sociology and political science, respectively. The clarification of this issue is included in the range of problems that are the subject of research in political sociology.
Even more difficult is the question of where in Fig. 1 the spiritual sphere ends and where the political world begins. Man is not only a social, political and economic being, but also a spiritual bearer of certain socio-cultural, political, cultural, moral and ethical norms and values. Here we are talking primarily about the paradigm and ideological dimension of the political world, which is the object of political philosophy. Ethnopolitology and political psychology, which study the corresponding components of the political world, are more or less closely related to these two subsections of political science.
Political science, like any other social and humanitarian scientific discipline, studies its subject by measuring it and comparing it with other phenomena and processes. In other words, the very principle of comparability is implicitly inherent in any political science research, especially when it comes to classification and typology. The political science tradition, beginning with Plato and Aristotle, already in itself contains a significant element of comparativeism. It was on the basis of the comparative approach that Aristotle created his typology of forms of government. As a matter of fact, all the typologies proposed in subsequent eras are also built on the principles of comparative analysis.
However, almost all significant phenomena and aspects of the political world are subjected to comparative analysis. To study this complex of problems, such an important branch of political science as comparative political science was formed.
Relationship between history and political science
In order to understand the topic under study here, elucidation of the question of the nature of the relationship between history and political science is of particular importance. After all, it is known that these two disciplines developed in close relationship. In historical science there is an independent section - political history, which studies the main directions and trends in the political development of human communities in the past.
At the dawn of the formation of political science as an independent discipline, the famous English historian E. Freeman said, not without certain reasons: "History is past politics and politics is today's history." And it is not surprising that political science was formed in close relationship with history. But this does not mean that there are no serious differences between the two disciplines, which can be illustrated by comparing the tasks and functions of the historian and the political scientist. As a rule, the historian deals with accomplished processes and phenomena that have already become the property of the past. He can observe the beginning, development and end of the studied processes. The political scientist, on the other hand, deals with facts that have not yet taken place. He looks at these facts as ongoing action. He looks at history as a performance and perceives it as an action in which he himself is a participant. Unlike the historian, who can analyze his subject, as if standing above it, moving away from it, the political scientist must maintain the closest connection with the subject of research, he is, as it were, inside the process he is studying. The real source of his difficulty is that he must assess the state of the political situation before it assumes historical form, i.e. will become irreversible. And this prompts the political scientist to often confuse his own desires with reality.
Regarding the possibilities of a particular science to adequately study its object, it is appropriate to apply the Hegelian metaphor here: "The owl of Minerva begins its flight at dusk." And indeed, more or less comprehensive knowledge about a particular socio-political phenomenon that corresponds to the real state of affairs can only be obtained when this phenomenon has become an accomplished objective fact of social life. Accordingly, the researcher can study this fact by observing and studying it, as it were, from the outside. From this point of view, the position of the historian is preferable, since he deals with already accomplished historical phenomena and facts. As for the political scientist, the object of his interest is living realities that affect the interests of many people acting in these realities.
The political scientist, being one of these persons, is unable to fully rise above the realities he studies, which have not yet become fait accompli, are in motion, in the process of becoming. He cannot be distracted from subjective, momentary impressions, and his conclusions can be influenced by changing events and circumstances. Figuratively speaking, for the political scientist, the hour of twilight has not yet come and the owl of Minerva is only spreading its wings.
The subject of political science as a science
In view of the foregoing, the entire set of problems that political science deals with can be divided into three blocks.
First, the socio-philosophical and ideological-theoretical foundations of politics, system-forming features and characteristics of the political subsystem, political paradigms corresponding to one or another specific historical period.
Secondly, and, the differences and similarities between different political systems, their advantages and disadvantages, political regimes, the conditions for their change and change.
Thirdly, the political process, political behavior. Moreover, we are not talking about any kind of hierarchical subordination of these three blocks, about the greater or lesser significance of one or another of them.
Political phenomena are undoubtedly of interest primarily in their present state at the moment. The task of a political scientist is to clarify their structure, constituent elements, functions, conditions for normal functioning, correlation and interaction with each other. But without taking into account the historical background, the ideological-theoretical and socio-philosophical background, such an analysis would be one-sided and, therefore, not adequately revealing the essence of political phenomena. Therefore, political science research should include three important aspects: historical, concrete-empirical and theoretical.
The fundamental objects of political science research are state, government and power relations, constituting, as it were, the axial core of the political. They have many dimensions - economic, socio-cultural, philosophical, socio-psychological, structural, functional, etc. Each of these dimensions has its own characteristics, norms and functions. The task of political science in this regard is much broader than the tasks of state and legal disciplines, which study primarily the legal aspects of this problem.
Political science is called upon to analyze the state and power relations primarily as social phenomena, as institutions of the political organization of society, the main goal of which is the realization of the general interest.
An important object of study of political science is also the system of international relations with its own backbone characteristics, structural components and functions. An important task of political science is the study of patterns, basic norms and features of the interaction of states, regional and world organizations and other subjects of international relations in modern conditions. Of particular importance is the study of decision-making mechanisms, the roles and functions of the most important institutions in the system of resolving international conflicts and achieving consensus between states. In a broader sense, we are talking about the world community of countries and peoples in its political and military-political, as well as other related aspects. In this understanding, the world community is the object of study of geopolitics.
Summing up, we can say that the subject of political science in general is the political in its totality, in the context of historical development and real social reality, as well as the interaction and interweaving of various social forces, socio-cultural and political-cultural experience. The focus of her vision is such diverse institutions, phenomena and processes as the political system, political system, power and power relations, political command, political culture. history of political doctrines, etc.
These problems are studied not only by political science, but in various aspects and dimensions also by history, philosophy, sociology, state-legal science and other scientific disciplines. Therefore, it is natural that political science is open to influence from other social and humanitarian, and often natural sciences. Integrating individual aspects of these disciplines, political science is located, as it were, at the point of their intersection and is an interdisciplinary science.
Reviewers: Department of Political Science and Sociology of the Republican Institute of Higher Education at BSU; head Department of Political Science, Belarusian State Economic University, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor, Corresponding Member. NAS of Belarus V. A. Bobkov; cand. Historical Sciences, Assoc. V. P. Osmolovsky
On the cover: Oedipus solves the riddle of the Sphinx. Painting a vase. 5th century BC e.
Melnik V. A.
M48 Political Science: Proc. - 3rd ed., Rev. - Mn.: Vysh. school, 1999. -495s.
ISBN 985-06-0442-5.
Political science is characterized as a scientific and academic discipline, the stages of formation and development of political thought are highlighted, the main issues of the theory of politics, political systems and political processes are analyzed, socio-political concepts and currents of the modern world are considered.
For university students.
UDC 32.001 (075.8) BBK 66ya73
© V. A. Melnik, 1996 © V. A. Melnik, 1998 © Higher School Publishing House, 1999
ISBN 985-06-0442-5
FOREWORD
Political science has taken a strong place in the university curricula as a compulsory social science discipline. There are good reasons for this: there is a growing interest in political life in society, in the knowledge of its laws. This is due to the formation of a rule of law state and a democratic political system, the formation of a system of political parties and movements, and the involvement of large masses of people in politics. At the same time, the need for knowledge about politics, its patterns, principles and norms is becoming increasingly clear. Active participants in the political process understand that without appropriate knowledge there can be no effective political action. This is the reason for the need to study political science in higher educational institutions.
A number of educational and teaching aids on this discipline have already been published in our republic. Their scientific and methodological significance lies in the fact that the authors laid the foundations of domestic approaches to understanding the subject of political science, its structure and conceptual apparatus.
At the same time, as we believe, the problem of creating high-quality educational literature on political science has not yet received its satisfactory solution. The published manuals reflect only the first experience of teaching this academic discipline. They differ significantly in methodological approaches, the level of theoretical analysis of the issues under consideration. Perhaps their common shortcoming is the lack of a strict conceptual sequence in the presentation of the subject of the course. In a word, writing textbooks and manuals on political science that meet the modern requirements of didactics remains an urgent scientific and methodological task.
The purpose of this publication is to fill to some extent the existing deficiency in the relevant educational literature. A feature of the textbook is the correspondence of its structure and content to the topics of the main sections of the programs, according to which the course of political science is taught in higher educational institutions of the Republic of Belarus.
The conceptual series presented in the textbook is based on various theoretical sources. However, working with numerous publications, the author saw his task not in a simple retelling of the existing points of view on a particular issue of the course, but in a systematized, conceptual presentation of the foundations of the science of politics. Starting from the concepts of "politics", "political relations" and "political power", the author comes to the main problems of political science and the system of its fundamental concepts and categories. Thus, an attempt is made in the work to comprehensively comprehend the subject of political science in the context of domestic and world political realities.
Of course, the author does not claim to have no alternative
the proposed structure of the textbook and the indisputability of the reality
based approaches and solutions both in theoretical and
in a methodical way. The full agreement of the researchers,
is known to be unattainable in any field of knowledge, and
more in such a science as political science. The author hopes that
the proposed textbook, with all its possible shortcomings
kah, it will be very handy at the moment,
when there is an acute need for domestic educational
literature in this discipline. „
When writing the textbook, the results of research obtained at different times by both domestic and foreign authors were used. The genre of the publication does not allow overloading it with numerous quotations. Therefore, they are given in the text only in cases where this is strictly required by the context of presentation or didactic considerations. If it is necessary to show someone's scientific priority, the textbook gives the name of the researcher or makes a link to the appropriate source.
POLITICAL SCIENCE AS A SCIENCE AND ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE
1. POLITICAL SCIENCE, ITS SUBJECT AND PLACE IN THE SYSTEM OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
1.1. Subject, methods and structure of political science
[The concept of "political science" is formed from two Greek words: poll tike - state, public affairs and logos - word, meaning, teaching. / The father of the first concept is Aristotle(384-322 BC), the second - Heraclitus(c. 530-480 BC). "The combination of these two concepts means that political science is a doctrine, the science of politics ..
The origin of the term "politike" is associated with the ancient Greek city-state, which was called policy. A polis is a form of social structure that developed in Ancient Greece and became the prototype of the modern national state. The polis organization relied on the economic and state sovereignty of the community of free owners and producers - the citizens of the polis, which extended over the entire polis territory, that is, the city itself and the countryside adjacent to it. This sovereignty implied for each citizen the opportunity, and often the duty, in one way or another.
form - primarily in the form of voting in the people's assembly - to participate in resolving issues of the life of the polis community. The presence of special activities related to the participation of people in solving issues of polis life, or, as they say today, with public administration, led to the need to designate this activity with a short concept. such l became the term "politics", which was established after the writing of the treatise of the same name by Aristotle on the state, board and government.
Thus, the term "political science" goes back to the ancient
non-Greek policy and means the doctrine of politics, i.e.
body of knowledge about government.! Along the way
note that derivatives of the word polls (city-state
stvo) is also a number of other terms, for example: politeia
(constitution, or political system), polites (civil
danin), politikos (statesman).
Formation Politics as a specific figure
human beings very early became a subject
scientific research volume. at first
knowledge of politics was an integral part of philosophy.
But already in antiquity, special treatises were created,
devoted to the analysis of political activity. Plato
(427-347 BC) named the relevant works
"Laws" and "State". Aristotle his work
devoted to the study of the state and society, called about
one hundred "Politics". And the corresponding science, the foundations of which
Roy, according to him, obeys the statesman, he
also called politics.
An important milestone in the development of political science as a scientific discipline was the work of the Italian thinker of the Renaissance Niccolo Machiavelli(1469-1527). Unlike the thinkers of antiquity, who nevertheless did not single out political science from ethics and philosophy, Machiavelli considered the doctrine of politics as an independent field of knowledge. And although he was not yet aware of the scientific methods of analysis, nevertheless, he already
likened political phenomena to natural, natural facts, subject to objective laws. He put the problem of state power at the center of his political teaching and subordinated political research to the solution of practical problems of state life. The scientific nature of the study of political reality was given in the XIX century. During this period, scientists began to study the behavior of people in connection with their participation in public administration, using scientific methods. By this time, the emergence of scientific institutions specializing in research in the field of political relations. The first of these institutions was the Free School of Political Science, founded in France in 1871 (now the Institute of Political Studies of the University of Paris). In 1880, the School of Political Science was founded at Columbia College USA, and in 1895, the London School of Economics and Political Science.
Since the second half of the XX century. the science that develops theoretical ideas about public administration began to be called political science. Here is how the content of political science is defined in the Dictionary of Social and "Political Sciences" (published in the West): "If politics is an activity, then political theory is a reflection, an interpretation of this activity ... As for political science, then its task" reveal the meaning of politics, classify it, orient power, propose a utopia of the “optimal state”, reveal the “factors of power” and develop some “general concepts” of politics” .
Now political science, or simply political science, is one of the vast areas of scientific knowledge, which has not only theoretical, but also applied significance. The adoption of political decisions is a complex, multifaceted process, which implies the presence of a wide variety of information about social reality. What is now called politics as a field of practical activity is in fact the result of the analytical efforts of an extensive network of research institutes, departments and groups, the result of collective creative work.
yes, many people. In terms of the number of studies and the number of publications, political science today ranks first among other social sciences. Modern political science has a set of techniques and methods for specific research, including the use of computer technology. Since 1949, the International Political Science Association (IAPS) has been operating, created on the initiative of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), which aims to promote the development of political research.
Constituting As an independent academic discipline, political science began to take shape from the end of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th century, when its first departments appeared in Western Europe and the USA. It has been widely taught in the system of higher education since the second half of this century. In 1948, UNESCO recommended a political science course for study in the higher educational institutions of its member countries. All Western states and a number of Eastern European states heeded this recommendation. After the overthrow of totalitarian regimes in Eastern Europe, political science became a compulsory course throughout the region.
Thus, the word "politics" originally meant
"participation in the management of the policy" and very early began to refer to the amount of knowledge necessary for the competent decision of such issues. Today, politics, political science is also an academic discipline that is studied in almost all countries.
Object and subject Like any science, political science has
political science has its own object and specific
method of knowledge. Pre-reminder
him that in the theory of knowledge as an object is understood
what the subject-practical and cognitive
body activity of the subject. In other words, the object of a particular science is that part of objective reality that is subjected to research by the cognizing subject. The subject of science is those aspects, features, properties and relations of the object under study that are analyzed.
Of course, in this introductory topic, the object and subject of political science can be defined only in the most general form, knowing that the concept of politics covers a wide range of phenomena. As the German sociologist and political scientist wrote Max Weber(1864-1920), “this concept has an extremely broad meaning and covers all types of activities for independent leadership. They talk about the currency policy of the banks, about the discount policy of the Reichsbank, about the policy of the trade union during the strike; one can speak of the school policy of an urban or rural community, of the policy of a board running a corporation, and finally, even of the policy of a smart wife who seeks to rule her husband.
Along with the fact that political science provides a systematic, comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon of political power, it is also called upon to explore those aspects of political phenomena, the activities of institutions and institutions that remain outside the field of view of the relevant scientific disciplines. We are talking, for example, about the study of various aspects of political consciousness, political culture, political behavior and action, methods and methodology for understanding the phenomena of political life, etc.
In addition, the boundaries of political science are changeable and difficult to define. The number of special topics that political science studies is constantly increasing. This is due to the evolution of political life and, to an even greater extent, the application of politics to a very wide range of areas of human activity, as well as the great intellectual activity of political researchers, the complexity of the object under study.
One of the fundamental questions for any science is the question of its inherent concepts and categories. Therefore, the general characterization of political science as a science requires at least a brief mention of the system of its concepts and categories.
Recall that concepts and categories in a generalized form
reflect the most essential, natural connections and relations of reality. They are the main structural element of any scientific theory. Consequently, the categories and concepts of political science as a science act as a result of the knowledge of the political sphere of public life and reflect the most significant connections and relationships inherent in the phenomena and processes of politics. In other words, the content of the object and subject of political science gets its detailed reflection in the system of concepts and categories of this science.
The concepts and categories of political science can be classified on various grounds. It seems to us that it is methodically justified to divide their totality primarily into concepts and categories of the general theory of politics and political systems and concepts and categories that reflect the processes of change and development of political reality.
The concepts and categories of the general theory of politics and political systems include: politics, political power, subjects of politics, political relations, political system of society, political norm, political institution, state, political party, public association, social movement, political consciousness, political ideology, political culture. The main concepts that reveal the dynamic aspects of political reality are: political activity, political action, political decision, political process, revolution, reform, political conflict, political agreement, political socialization, political role, political leadership, political behavior, political participation. Of course, both the one and the other series could be continued further. In addition, concepts and categories of related scientific disciplines are widely used in political science.
More or less established scientific meanings of these and other concepts and categories of political science will be given when considering subsequent topics of the course. Here we emphasize the originality of political science as a science. It lies in the fact that the key issue and the main
its category is political power. Political science examines all social phenomena and processes in relation to political power. It is the category of "political power" that most fully reflects the essence* and content of the phenomenon of politics. The latter takes place where there is a struggle for power, for mastering it, for its use and retention. Without power, there can be no politics, since it is power that acts as a means of its implementation.
The constitution of political science as an independent scientific discipline did not take place? only due to the presence of a specific object of study, but also because certain patterns also take place in the political sphere - objectively existing, recurring, essential connections between phenomena of social life or stages of a historical process^ - Every science, every knowledge in any field has its goal is to identify objectively existing links between the sides of the object.This applies entirely to political science.As a scientific and academic discipline, it seeks to find out the existing patterns in the field of political relations, without knowledge of which successful political activity is impossible.
Thus, the regularities studied by political science are the most significant and stable trends in the development and use of political power. Like the basic concepts, these regularities will be considered in the course of the presentation of the subsequent topics of the course. Here it will suffice to note that the characteristic regularities can be divided into three main groups, depending on the sphere of their manifestation.
The first group consists of political and economic patterns that reflect the relationship between the economic basis of society and political power as an element of the superstructure. The most important regularities of this group were discovered Karp Marks(1818-1883). For example, from his point of view, politics and, accordingly, the system of political, state power are determined by the development of economic * processes. "Political
power, - wrote K. Marx, - is only a product of economic power. At the same time, political power has relative independence, which opens up considerable opportunities for political influence on economic processes. The latter, however, should not give rise to a cult of political power, illusions about its real possibilities, because attempts to “circumvent” economic laws with the help of administrative coercion do not lead to the achievement of the set goal.
The second group of regularities includes political and social ones. They characterize the development of political power as a special social system with its own internal logic and structure. Here the main regularity is the strengthening of the stability of political power. By the way, it will be noted that in domestic political science this pattern has not been properly developed, which has led to a shortage of necessary recommendations and measures to stabilize political life.
The third group is formed by political and psychological patterns. They reflect the complex of existing connections and relations between the individual and the authorities. Of the greatest interest from this group are the patterns associated with the achievement and retention of power by a political leader.
Methods When studying specific phenomena and
political science processes political science uses times
personal methods. The widest
the following have been used in this science: dialecti
chesky, empirical-sociological, comparative (or
comparative), systemic, behavioral, etc.
The dialectical method allows us to consider the processes and phenomena of the political sphere in their formation and development, in interconnection both with each other and with the processes and phenomena of other spheres of society. Covering politics in all its interrelations and mediations, this method makes it possible to develop the most general concepts and categories of political theory, and plays a unifying role in the entirety of political research. The principle of historicism, being the key
in the dialectical method, ensures the identification of patterns of formation, development and change of political
The empirical sociological method in political science is a set of techniques and methods of specific sociological research aimed at collecting and analyzing the facts of real political life. This method has become very widespread in the political science of the West. A relatively independent direction has developed there - applied political science, focused on the practical application of the results of sociological research in political life. Such studies, their results act as a commodity, the customer and buyer of which are central and local authorities, political parties, government agencies, private firms.
The comparative or comparative method consists in comparing two or more political objects (or parts) that have similarities. It allows, by means of comparison, to isolate the general and particular in the variety of political phenomena of various political systems, to identify the main trends in the development of political processes. The main difficulty in applying the comparative method is associated with the need to correctly select the subject of the phenomena that will be compared, subjected to scientific observation, description and theoretical interpretation.
The system method considers the political sphere of society as a certain integrity, consisting of a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other and the external environment. The originality of this approach lies in the holistic perception of the object of study and a comprehensive analysis of the relationships between individual elements within the framework of a broad whole. System analysis is considered especially valuable in cognitive terms. This research method is widely used by both Western and domestic political science.
Behavioral (from English, behavior - behavior, act) method consists in the analysis of the political behavior of individuals and groups. Initial in this
method is the position that the group actions of people in one way or another go back to the behavior of specific individuals who are the main object of research. In turn, psychological motives are considered as decisive factors of behavior, which constitute the main subject of political science study. At the same time, the main attention is paid to the collection of empirical facts, careful observance of research procedures, the use of methods of natural and exact sciences in the processing and analysis of the information received. Behavioralism is one of the leading research areas in American political science.
In some textbooks, quantitative methods and the method of decision making are also called as special methods for analyzing political phenomena.
The quantitative method involves statistical analysis of political activity, questionnaire surveys and interviews of participants in political actions, as well as laboratory experiments that consist in modeling certain political situations in order to develop the most likely scenario for future actions.
The decision-making method consists in making and implementing political decisions, through which it is supposed not only to achieve certain political goals, but also to simultaneously verify the correctness of the conclusions obtained using other methods of analysis.
Apparently, there is a certain reason for highlighting the last two methods mentioned. But, as it seems to us, both of them are absorbed by those discussed above, and the second is not so much a research method as a necessary side, aspect, condition of any political activity.
Paradigms Along with research methods, in
poyit ^! | Щ theories of science also differ in state
prevailing in a particular period
development of the relevant branch of knowledge, ways to explain
of the studied phenomena. To designate them as American
philosopher and historian of science Thomas Kuhn(b. 1922)
proposed to use the concept "paradigm"(from the Greek paradeigma - an example, a sample). From his point of view, the scientific paradigm is a system of knowledge recognized by all and having acquired the character of beliefs, which for a certain time serves the scientific community as a logical model for posing cognitive problems and solving them. In other words, scientific paradigm there is a way of choosing an object of study and explaining a certain set of facts related to it in the form of sufficiently substantiated principles and laws that form a consistent theory. The change of one dominant paradigm to another in the corresponding field of knowledge is considered by researchers as a scientific revolution.
A characteristic feature of political science is that various conceptual approaches to the description and interpretation of the phenomena of political reality coexist in it. Such approaches are based on attempts to explain politics either through the action of a supernatural principle, or through the influence of natural, social, or political factors proper. The corresponding conceptual approaches in the literature are conventionally referred to as theological, naturalistic, social and rational-critical paradigms of political science knowledge.
The theological paradigm dominated the early stages of the existence of society, when people were not yet able to notice the objective internal and external factors of political phenomena. Under these conditions, they inevitably gave a supernatural interpretation of politics, saw the source of power in God, and explained political changes by his will. And although such an explanation of politics can hardly be called a conceptual-theoretical one, it nevertheless proceeded from the idea of the causality of political phenomena. And this is nothing but a sign of paradigmatic thinking.
The naturalistic paradigm provides an explanation of the nature of politics based on the dominant importance of environmental, geographical, biological and psychological factors. The most significant sub-
geopolitics, biopolitics and a wide range of psychological concepts are considered moves in the naturalistic way of explaining the phenomena of politics. Despite the fact that these approaches to understanding politics belong to the same class of theoretical concepts - the naturalistic paradigm, they all polemicize and compete with each other. In addition, all of them are confidently opposed by other conceptual assessments of the nature of politics.
The social paradigm represents a group of conceptual approaches in line with which an explanation of politics is given through the action of social, but external factors in relation to it. With such theoretical approaches, the nature and origin of political phenomena are explained as the result of the creative role of one or another sphere of public life or the manifestation of the socio-cultural properties of the subjects of social action. Various social concepts are called economic relations, law, cultural, religious, ethical-normative and other factors as the reasons that generate politics. Many researchers consider politics exclusively as a product of the meaningful activity of people and therefore make various political phenomena dependent on the properties of a person acquired by him in the process of social evolution.
Rationally o-critical paradigms
the nature of the political interaction of people is associated
not with factors external to politics, but with
its internal causes and properties. Data concept
tual approaches proceed from the premise that politics
there is a completely or relatively independent community
a natural phenomenon that arises and develops according to its own
own, internal order
find the inner source - nature. ;lolltiki rendered
were very fruitful. In growing, time, depending
bridges from the selected aspect ^, ks ^ ODdv ^ d pbltiyy,
there are many different ones! conceptual approaches,
explaining the essence of this ^ side of human life
inactivity. \
"
Identification of the main paradigms of political science makes it possible to see the connection of political science with more general
P O L I T O L O G I A
(for specialty students)
Prepared
Associate Professor of the Department of Humanities and Socio-Economic Disciplines
Chadaeva Svetlana Vladimirovna
APPROXIMATE DISTRIBUTION OF LEARNING TIME
BY TOPICS AND TYPES OF CLASSES
| Topic name | Number of teaching hours | |||
| Total | Lectures | Seminars | Independent work | |
| 1. Political science as a science and subject | – | – | ||
| 2. Politics as a social phenomenon. Politics and other areas of public life | ||||
| 3. The main ideological doctrines of our time | ||||
| 4. Political power | – | – | ||
| 5. The political system of society | – | – | ||
| 6. State as a political institution | – | |||
| 7. Rule of law and civil society. social state. | ||||
| 8. Political regimes and their typology | – | |||
| 9. Political parties and movements | ||||
| 10. Political elites and political leadership | – | |||
| 11. Political consciousness and political culture | – | |||
| 12. Political process and political behavior | ||||
| 13. Politics and international attitude | ||||
| 14. Social structure of society and politics | – | |||
| 15. Political conflicts | ||||
| 16. Electoral process | – | – | ||
| 17. Ethno-national and religious factor in politics | – | |||
| TOTAL |
TOPIC 1. POLITICAL SCIENCE AND SUBJECT
1. Political science: object and subject of political science.
2. Political science as a science and academic discipline.
3. Methods of political science.
1. Political science: object and subject of political science
political science - it is a body of knowledge about politics formed by a developed system of specialized scientific disciplines that study political phenomena and processes.
The components of political science are:
a) political theory(theory of politics and the history of political ideas);
b) study of state institutions(central, regional, local, legislative, executive, judicial);
in) study of the political activity of citizens(parties, associations, public opinion);
G ) international relationships(international organizations and world politics).
The object of political scienceis politics in all its diversity.
The subject of political scienceare the properties of politics as a sphere of society, trends and factors of its change and development. In other words, the subject of political science is politics and political life in general, identifying its main components, trends and links with other areas of public life1.
The task of political science is also an explanation of the motivation and behavior of people who recreate and (or) change political institutional relations and political culture in each specific situation2.
Political science as a science and academic discipline
Historically, the study of politics has changed from Eastern and ancient philosophical and socio-political thought to the formation at the end of the 19th century of independent political scientific directions and disciplines, for example, such as: political philosophy, state theory, political history, etc.
Among the first scientific institutions specializing in research in the field of political science were:
1. created in 1871 Free School of Political Science in France (currently the Institute for Political Studies of the University of Paris);
2 organized in 1880 - School Political Science at Columbia University(USA);
3. created in 1895 - London School of Economics and Political Science;
4. in 1903 was established American Political Science Association, which united US political scientists and laid the foundation for the creation of similar associations in other countries of the world1.
The rise of political science in Imperial Russia characterized by certain features and understandable difficulties. The official political course and the nature of the state structure of the country were to be perceived by the population as the only possible ones, moreover, consecrated by tradition and the church, and also protected by law. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, until the creation of the multi-party State Duma in 1906, theoretical politics in universities could only be considered within the framework of legal disciplines at the law faculties of leading Russian universities, for example, in such courses as the history of political and legal doctrines, philosophy law, general theory of law. In other words, they could be discussed only by a narrow circle of future specialists in the form of a kind of "application" to the law and usually from an official point of view.
By the end of the nineteenth century. includes the opening of the direction of "history and political sciences" at the Imperial Academy in St. Petersburg. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Russia gave the world a whole galaxy of brilliant theorists of law and politics, most of whom had a university legal, philosophical or historical education: N.I. Kareev, M.M. Kovalevskiy, V.I. Lenin, S.A. Muromtsev, P.I. Novgorodtsev, G.V. Plekhanov, A.I. Stronin, B.N. Chicherin and others.
Works devoted to the analysis of politics and its laws appear at the beginning of the 20th century. The turbulent events of that time made it necessary to look for answers to burning questions about the political present and future of the country. Belonging to various ideological currents, such scientists as N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, M.M. Kovalevsky, M.Ya. Ostrogorsky, P.B. Struve, M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky and many others analyzed in their works the problems of power, the state, the revolution, the political fate of the Fatherland.
An important stage in the development of world political science was period after World War II. In 1948, the study of political science was recommended by UNESCO, which created the necessary prerequisites for its gradual recognition and approval in universities and academic institutions in the vast majority of countries in the world. Since 1949, the International Political Science Association (IAPS) has been functioning at UNESCO, maintaining links with dozens of national associations, including the Russian one, which has been operating since the mid-1950s. XX v2.
Only in 1989 did the Higher Attestation Commission introduce political science into the list of scientific disciplines. By a decree of the Government of the Russian Federation, political science is also defined as an academic discipline in universities.. Since 1989, postgraduate schools and specialized councils have been operating at leading Russian universities and research institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, in which candidate and doctoral dissertations in political sciences are defended.
As a science of politics, political science “covers” the entire spectrum of political life, including both its spiritual and material, practical aspects, the interaction of politics with other areas of public life. The subject of study and research of political science are such basic components of politics as political institutions, political processes, political relations, political ideology and culture, political activity.
Recently, in world political science, there has been a growing interest in the methods of phenomenology, hermeneutics, semantics, i.e., methods that try to explain the phenomena of social and political life, primarily based on the ability of a person to give certain meanings and meanings to his actions. This direction in political science is called postmodern. It is distinguished by the desire of researchers to understand how people determine the semantic content of political actions, why they interpret political events this way and not otherwise, and how the results of interpretation affect their real behavior.
important problems of modern political science are problems such as:
Political power, its essence and structure;
Political systems and regimes of modernity;
Forms of government and state structure;
Political stability and political risk;
Party and electoral systems;
Political rights and freedoms of man and citizen;
Civil society and the rule of law;
Political behavior and political culture of the individual;
Political communication and mass media;
Religious and national aspects of politics;
Means and methods of settling political conflicts and crises;
International political relations, geopolitics, political global studies, etc.
Of course, due to their complexity and versatility, not only political science, but also other social and human sciences are related to the study and research of these and other problems of politics. For example, such as: philosophy, sociology, psychology, economic theory, legal, historical sciences.
Interest groups collide in politics, covering various spheres of society - the economy, government and law, the social sphere, ethno-national and religious relations, traditional social structures. It is significantly influenced by the national-historical and socio-cultural traditions of the society, the psychological genotype of the nation.
Due to its systemic nature, political science has now found itself at the crossroads of interdisciplinary knowledge, which covers various sciences.
But unlike other areas of political knowledge, political science has a goal:
Penetrate into the essence of politics as an integral social phenomenon,
To identify at the macro and micro levels its necessary structural elements, internal and external connections and relationships,
Determine the main trends and patterns operating in different socio-political systems,
Outline the immediate and final prospects for its further development,
Develop objective criteria for the social dimension of politics.
Of course, it must be borne in mind that political science can be conditionally divided into theoretical and applied, these sides, or levels, complement and enrich each other.
The theoretical study of politics differs from its applied analysis, first of all, by the following goals: if the first puts the main task of knowledge and a better understanding of political life, then the second is connected with the very pragmatic tasks of influencing and simply changing the current policy. Applied political science directly answers the questions: “for what?” And How?". It can be represented as a set of theoretical models, methodological principles, research methods and procedures, as well as political science technologies, specific programs and recommendations focused on practical application, achieving a real political effect.
Applied political science explores the main subjects of political events, their hierarchy, classes and intra-class formations, parties, crowds and political audiences, social, ethnic and religious groups, the role of participants in political events in making political decisions and their implementation.
The applied branches of political science include the concepts of public administration, party strategy and tactics, and situational political analysis. In particular, the theory of political technologies (technology for the development and adoption of a political decision; technology for holding a referendum, an election campaign, etc.) is very relevant at the present time.
Political Science Methods
Political phenomena and processes are learned with the help of various methods. Methods are means of analysis, methods of testing and evaluating a theory.
The main types of methods and levels of political research methodology developed gradually in the course of the historical development of political thought.
The periodization of the development of the methodology of political science can be represented as follows;
1) classical period (until the 19th century), connected mainly with deductive, logical-philosophical and moral-axeological approaches;
2) institutional period (XIX - early XX century)- Historical-comparative and normative-institutional methods come to the forefront;
3) behavioral period (20-70s of the XX century), when quantitative methods began to be actively introduced;
4) in the last third of the XX century. a new one has come post-behavioral stage, characterized by a combination of "traditional" and "new" methods.
Disputes about priority approaches are still ongoing, the main currents within the methodology of political science are still “traditionalist” and “behaviorist”1.
In political science, three groups of methods are used:
theoretical,
empirical,
General scientific (logical).
Theoretical Methods
Theoretical Methods are complex abstract constructions of political reality and political behavior. They are designed to extract such knowledge about politics that is not available to direct observation. Theoretical methods form the categorical apparatus of science.
Theoretical methods in political science can be divided into two groups.
First group of methods is intended for cognition and analytical construction of political reality.
Second group- to explain political behavior.
These groups of methods solve two different cognitive tasks: the first seeks to develop an optimal way of knowing objective political formations, the second - to find mechanisms for understanding the political activities of individual individuals.
To the first group of theoretical methods relate: structuralism.
functionalism. system analysis, topological method.
Let's consider these methods separately.
Structuralism . This method is based on the belief that in society and in politics there are stable social and political formations - structures. These can be: institutions, norms, groups, communities, statuses, roles - something that exists apart from the will and consciousness of individuals. The stability of structures makes it possible to isolate them from political reality, to study each one separately. This methodological technique is widely used, for example, in the analysis of political institutions, when each of them is considered as a kind of independent entity. The behavior of specific people within the framework of structuralism is usually not taken into account, since it is believed that the individual acts, first of all, obeying the requirements of a particular structure. A variation of the structuralist method is institutional, focused on the study of such an important component of politics as political institutions.
Functionalism in contrast to the structuralist approach, it focuses on identifying factors of interdependence of political institutions, organizations and other elements of political reality. The function is considered as an objective requirement made by the whole to its parts, as a positive connection between them, dependence. Within the framework of classical functionalism, the emergence of any political institution is explained by the ripening in society, in the political system of the corresponding needs. And the logic of the analysis comes down to identifying the functions performed by certain political structures. We can, for example, talk about the functions of the state, the functions of parties, the functions of political culture, etc.
System analysis orients researchers towards the construction of politics as a structured integrity that interacts with its environment, primarily with other social spheres of society. Based on the general methodological principles of systems theory, cybernetics, synergetics, scientists using this method explore the factors of stability and variability of political relations, the channels of mutual influence of the political system and the environment, the mechanisms of functioning and development of the political system.
Topological method(from Greek topos - place) - it is when politics is considered in terms of political space or political field. It is assumed that each person has some resources, capital (level of education, financial situation, status in the political hierarchy, etc.), which determine his place in the social and political spaces. People with similar, identical resources occupy close positions in social and political spaces, gravitate towards each other. As a result, groups are formed in society that objectively differ from each other and occupy more or less advantageous positions in the political space. The position occupied in the political space, due to its objectivity, also affects the individual behavior of a person, determines his lifestyle, aspirations, political preferences. This method is used in describing the position of the political elite in society, as well as various social and political groups. Thanks to this method, the picture of conflicts arising in society becomes clearer, when the confrontation is described as the desire of the formed groups to change their position in the political space1.
Second group of theoretical methods focused on explaining political behavior. Often this group is called behaviorist (from English behavior - behavior), or behavioral method. In fact, there are many methods that model human behavior. They were created mainly by sociologists and psychologists, but are now successfully used in the study of various types of political action.
The second group includes: behaviorism, rational choice theories, psychodynamic theories of personality, cognitive theories..
Let's consider these methods.
Behaviorism is a methodological approach founded by the American psychologist B. F. Skinner. This approach is based on the assumption that human behavior is a reaction to various stimuli, stimuli. In later versions, the behavioral approach acquired a more complex form, the human response to stimuli began to be considered as a false, consciousness-mediated process, which, however, did not change the essence of this method. In political science, this method is usually used to describe changes in the political behavior of people, associating them with changes in living conditions, political decision-making, etc.
Rational choice theories . This methodological scheme is based on the opinion that there is a universal desire of a person to receive the maximum reward for the minimum effort - the “law of benefit”. The rationality of a person is manifested in his ability to choose from various options of behavior the one that best suits his interests and makes it easier to achieve the goal. A person enters into an interaction hoping to receive something in return: material reward, personal security, love, status, etc. In political science, this approach is often used to describe power relations, when submission is explained as a person’s desire to receive any resources in exchange (emotional, material, etc.), to explain the electoral choice, when it is assumed that a person votes for the candidate whose program is most in his interests, etc.
psychodynamic theories of personality, like rational choice theories, explain human behavior by internal factors, but the source of his activity is described as a complex, far from always realized, irrational process. Psychodynamic theories are varied and aim the political scientist at knowing, or at least taking into account the complex internal processes that a person experiences when involved in political interactions;
cognitive theories indicate that the causes of behavior must be sought in those mental processes by which a person cognizes and explains the world around him. A person acts depending on how he perceives, evaluates, interprets the situation. The nature and forms of political actions are determined by previously established attitudes, stereotypes, as well as the processes of perception and processing of new information.
We have listed only a part of the theoretical methods used in political science. The reason for their diversity is the complexity and inconsistency of politics. Science has not invented and is unlikely to ever invent a single universal method of understanding political phenomena. The inner world, the consciousness of an individual, his motivation cannot be described within the same concepts and categories as the objective world of political relations, institutions, norms and organizations.
Each theoretical method has its own advantages and limitations.
The achievements of the method include the opportunities it creates to describe, explain, analyze this or that segment of political reality.
For example, identify and consider political institutions (structuralism), establish relationships-dependencies in the political system (functionalism), describe the mechanisms of functioning and development of the political system (system-functional analysis). But any theoretical method does not have universal possibilities for describing the entire diversity of political life.
In science, attempts have been repeatedly made to create a generalizing theoretical method that claims to be universal, incorporating all the best achievements of scientific thought.
For example , in the 1970s. theory appears neo-institutionalism, designed to combine structuralism (institutionalism) and the theory of rational choice within a single methodology1.
empirical methods
empirical methods(from Greek emperia - experience), in contrast to theoretical methods, are focused on obtaining specific knowledge about political life. These methods are complex formalized procedures that allow streamlining the process of cognition of political phenomena, ensuring the validity (reliability) of the information received about the state of a political object. Using these methods, one can learn about the electoral preferences of the population, about the intentions of political leaders, about the value orientations and political attitudes of various social groups, about the attitude of the masses to government management decisions and about their reaction to political propaganda.
Empirical methods include:
1. Observation method , which is a systematized, directed perception of a phenomenon, the features and properties of which are fixed by the observer in accordance with the developed methodology.
For example, monitoring the course of the election campaign, when the actions of its main participants are recorded. The method of observation has much in common with our daily perception when we follow political events of interest to us. However, scientific observation, carried out by professionals using specially developed methods, is distinguished by the breadth of the field of observation, the ability to capture a more diverse range of actions of actors in the political arena.
2. Poll. The development of this method has greatly influenced the face of modern political science, which now appears not only as a purely theoretical discipline that explains the general trends of political life, but also as a science capable of providing practical knowledge about political moods, expectations, attitudes of real of people. The survey method, unlike observation, allows (with a properly developed scientific methodology) to learn about the processes taking place in the political consciousness of an individual: what a person dreams of, what type of state he considers most appropriate, what leaders he prefers. These processes of consciousness may, up to a certain time, not manifest themselves in any way in the political behavior of people, but implicitly prepare the latter for some kind of action. Surveys can also provide information about actions, events that, for various reasons, were outside of scientific observation.
Polls are:
a) informal, when the respondent is given the opportunity to independently formulate their answers to the questions of the researcher;
b) formalized when the respondent chooses one of the answer options in the questionnaire offered to him.
3. Content analysis - systematic numerical processing, evaluation and interpretation of the content of the information source (text). Content analysis allows you to identify what information and to what extent is contained in the election posters and program statements of the candidate, whether these documents reflect the state of public opinion, the needs and interests of the masses. Content analysis is especially useful in cases where it is not possible to conduct a questionnaire survey, but information about the priority goals of a particular political organization, government agency, or political leader is urgently needed.
4. Focus group method or group discussion, is used to clarify the attitude of various segments of the population to a particular event or phenomenon. It is a researcher-directed and moderated discussion of a chosen topic, in which participants are selected on the basis of an evidence-based sample. Thanks to a well-thought-out method of organizing a group discussion, one can study the reaction of the population to the speech of a political leader, to an election statement, to political advertising, etc. n1.
Empirical methods in political science play a subordinate role in relation to theoretical methods., which sets the general direction of any scientific research, striving not so much to search for a fact as to explain it, to search for dependencies between facts, to identify development trends. It is possible, for example, to conduct a public opinion poll every week about the electoral preferences of the population, but the collected factual material will not be of serious scientific value without identifying many other factors that influence the electoral choice. The study of these factors requires not just mastering the methodology of surveys, but deep theoretical knowledge in this area.
Introduction
1. Object and subject of political science, its relationship with other sciences
3. Research methods used in political science
Literature
Introduction
Politics can be found at the basis of all processes taking place in society, although not everything in human relations can be reduced to politics. In modern conditions, there is no person who could say that he is outside the range of politics. Even if a person considers himself apolitical, he is forced to recognize and at the same time respect the decisions of political authorities. Knowledge of politics is in the interests of every person who seeks to understand his place and role in society, to better satisfy his needs in a community with other people, to influence the choice of goals and means of their implementation in the state.
People become conscious of politics in two main ways: through ordinary views, obtained in everyday practical experience, and through scientific knowledge, which is the result of research activities. Ordinary unsystematized ideas about politics have existed for many millennia. In one form or another, they are inherent in every person. Reflecting mainly the practical side of political phenomena, everyday knowledge can be true or false. On the whole, however, they do not deeply and comprehensively reflect reality and therefore cannot serve as a reliable reference point for a person in the world of politics. All this is called upon to provide political science and its study.
1. Object and subject of political science, its relationship with other sciences
The concept of "political science" comes from two Greek words - politike (state affairs) and logos (teaching). Political science as an independent branch of knowledge arises at the turn of the Middle Ages and the New Age, when thinkers began to explain political processes with the help of scientific, rather than religious and mythological arguments. The foundations of scientific political theory were laid by N. Machiavelli, T. Hobbes, J. Locke, S.-L. Montesquieu and others. Political science as an independent scientific discipline began to take shape in the second half of the 19th century. In 1857, F. Leiber began to teach a political science course at Columbia College, in 1880 the first school of political science was created in the same college, which served as the beginning of the active formation of a system of political science educational and scientific institutions in the United States. And in 1903, the American Political Science Association was created, and in the same year a political magazine began to be published. In France, the teaching of "political and moral sciences" was started during the French Revolution. Since 1885, the London School of Economic and Political Sciences has been operating in Great Britain, where employees of public authorities and managers at various levels are trained. In 1896, the Italian political scientist and sociologist G. Mosca published the book "Elements of Political Science", which gives grounds to talk about the expansion of political science in Europe since the end of the 19th century. The process of establishing political science as an independent science and academic discipline was completed in 1948. That year, under the auspices of UNESCO, the International Association of Political Science was established. At the International Congress she held (Paris, 1948) on the issues of political science, the content of this science was determined and it was recommended to include the course of political science in the study in the system of higher education as a compulsory discipline. It was decided that the main components of political science are: 1) political theory; 2) political institutions; 3) parties, groups and public opinion; 4) international relations. In our country, political science has long been regarded as a bourgeois theory, a pseudoscience, and therefore was in its infancy. Separate political science problems were considered within the framework of historical materialism, scientific communism, the history of the CPSU, and other social sciences. At the same time, their study was dogmatic, one-sided. Political science as a new course of study begins to be taught in all higher educational institutions of Ukraine only after the collapse of the USSR. As an independent science, political science has its own object and specific subject of knowledge.
object political science is the sphere of political relations in society.
The sphere of political relations is much broader than what could be called purely political. It includes the processes of functioning and development of power, the inclusion of the masses in politics, the economic, social and spiritual interests of society. The political sphere is the interaction in the political process of large and small social groups, associations of citizens, individual individuals. The political sphere also includes socio-political institutions and organizations through which interaction is carried out between individual subjects of politics.
Subject political science are patterns of formation and development of political power, forms and methods of its functioning and use in the state-organizational society. The originality of political science lies in the fact that it considers all social phenomena and processes in relation to political power. Without power, there can be no politics, since it is power that acts as a means of its implementation. The category of "political power" is universal and covers all political phenomena. For example, the problems of reforming the political system, which are very hotly discussed in our state. From the point of view of legal science, they represent a dispute about the content of legal norms, from the point of view of political science, they are a theoretical reflection of the struggle of various social forces for the possession of economic and political power in society. Thus, political science is a system of knowledge about politics, political power, political relations and processes, about the organization of the political life of society. Political science arose and is developing in interaction with many sciences that study certain aspects of politics as a social phenomenon. (See Diagram 1) History and geography, law and sociology, philosophy and economics, psychology and cybernetics and a number of other sciences have their own approaches to the study of various aspects of politics. Each of them has as its subject the study of one or another aspect of the sphere of political relations, ranging from methodological to concrete applied issues. History studies real socio-political processes, different points of view on these processes. Thus, it allows you to find out and explain the causes of current political processes. Philosophy creates a general picture of the world, clarifies the place of man and his activities in this world, gives general concepts about the principles and conditions of knowledge, the development of theoretical concepts in general, and political ones in particular. Economic theory considers economic processes as the basis of the political sphere, which makes it possible to understand the nature of political relations. Law outlines the general framework for the activities of all state structures, as well as other organizations, citizens and their associations, i.e. the framework for the formation of phenomena central to politics. Sociology provides political science with information about the functioning of society as a system, about the interaction of different social groups in the aspect of political relations. Particularly valuable for political science are the methodological developments of sociology regarding the conduct of empirical research (questionnaires, content analysis, expert surveys, etc.). Political science is closely related to psychology. Analyzing human activity in the political sphere, the political scientist uses the concepts developed by psychological science: “needs”, “interests”, “ideals”, etc. In his research, political science also relies on data from political geography and political anthropology, uses materials from political global studies. In the last decade, a number of special political science disciplines have emerged: political modeling, political imageology, political marketing, etc. Such sciences as cybernetics, logic, statistics, systems theory give political science a form, quantitative measurements, and structures for presenting scientific messages from the point of view of abstract interpretations of political phenomena. and processes.
| Story | Political Science | Political geography | ||||||
| Philosophy | Political anthropology | |||||||
| Economic theory | Cybernetics | |||||||
| Right | Logics | |||||||
| Sociology | Statistics | |||||||
| Psychology | Other sciences | Systems theory | ||||||
Scheme 1 Interrelation of political science with other sciences
Like any scientific discipline that has a subject of study, political science has its own system categories , i.e. . key concepts, with the help of which the subject of science is revealed.
The specificity of the political science categorical apparatus is that, being formed later than the apparatus of other social sciences, it borrowed many categories from the historical, philosophical, legal, sociological vocabulary. Political science has learned a lot of terms from the field of natural sciences: cybernetics, biology, theoretical mathematics, etc. The system of political science categories is in development, it is constantly enriched both at the international and domestic levels. Nevertheless, some elementary concepts have already become established and have become widespread practice. They will be revealed and explained in subsequent lectures. The most important categories of political science include: politics, political power, the political system of society, the political regime, civil society, political parties, political culture, the political elite, political leadership, etc. Political science concepts and assessments, the impact of political science on the life of modern society are becoming more and more common and significant. This testifies to the presence of diverse connections between political science and society, to the performance of a number of important functions by it. Let's single out the most obvious ones (see diagram 2) Theoretical-cognitive the function is associated with the identification, study, understanding of various trends, difficulties, contradictions of political processes, with an assessment of the political events that have taken place;
Methodological the function of political science assumes that understanding the general patterns of the political life of society will help other social sciences in solving their specific problems;
Political science functions:
Theoretical-cognitive
Methodological
Analytical
Regulatory
predictive
Analytical the function of political science, like other social sciences, is aimed at understanding the essence of political processes, phenomena, their comprehensive assessment;
Regulatory the function is that political science contributes to the development of correct guidelines in turbulent political flows, ensures the impact of people and organizations on the political process, their participation in political events.
essence predictive The function is that knowledge of global trends in political development and their correlation with existing interest groups in society makes it possible to determine in advance the effectiveness of proposed political decisions. The presence of a preliminary examination helps to insure the society from negative consequences and ineffective actions.
Applied political science. Conventionally, political science can be divided into theoretical and applied. Both components are inextricably linked, complement and enrich each other.
Applied political science is a branch of political science that studies specific political situations in order to obtain certain information for interested individuals and organizations, develop political forecasts for them, practical advice and recommendations that serve to increase the effectiveness of their activities.
The specificity of applied political science is clearly manifested in its goals and final product. Theoretical political science aims to obtain new general abstract knowledge, sufficiently universal or knowledge that characterizes entire types of phenomena. Applied political science seeks to develop mainly short-term forecasts of the development of events, to give specific recommendations to certain participants in the political process. As a rule, professional analysts, experts, image makers (specialists in creating a positive image of a politician among citizens, especially voters), advisers to political figures and other persons related to real politics are engaged in applied political science research. Applied research is usually carried out at the request of state bodies, parties, other organizations, candidates for elected posts, etc. Such studies are widely used in the preparation of government decisions, as well as in the conduct of election campaigns. Applied political science develops technologies for managing election campaigns, the processes of creating political parties and associations, using the capabilities of the media to achieve certain political goals.
3. Research methods used in political science
The activity of people in any of its forms (scientific, practical, etc.) is determined by a number of factors. Its final result depends not only on who is acting (subject) or what it is aimed at (object), but also on how this process is carried out, what methods, techniques, means are used.
Research methods are techniques and ways to achieve certain results in practical and cognitive activities.
Depending on the specific purpose of the study, political science chooses various methods and methods of analysis, of which there are quite a lot. Conventionally, the methods used in the study of political phenomena and processes can be divided into general theoretical and specific empirical (see Scheme 3). In real research, all methods are intertwined and complement each other. The group of general theoretical methods includes institutional, historical, systemic, comparative, psychological, behavioral, etc.
institutional the method is focused on studying the interaction of political institutions: the state, its bodies, political parties and other public organizations. The analysis is based on the established and socially rooted political forms and formal decision-making rules. Historical method - based on the study of political phenomena in their development. The advantage of the historical method lies primarily in the fact that it makes it possible to study political processes in the context of the historical situation in which they arise and develop. Also, this method allows you to analyze phenomena that repeatedly repeat in history (for example, wars and revolutions). Using the historical method, researchers have the opportunity to generalize the modern historical experience in the development of political systems. An analysis of the various stages in the movement of political processes makes it possible to identify patterns in their development. The importance of using the historical method in political analysis is largely due to the needs of political practice. Its timely and correct application makes it possible to avoid manifestations of voluntarism and subjectivism in politics.
Comparative method. In order to understand the true essence of the political world, it is necessary to study the various forms of its manifestation in different countries and regions, socio-economic, socio-historical situations, among different nations and peoples, etc. In this context, not only the political system in its entirety, its forms, types and varieties, but also its specific components can act as objects of comparative analysis. And these are state structures, legislative bodies, parties and party systems, electoral systems, mechanisms of political socialization, etc. Modern comparative political studies cover dozens or even hundreds of compared objects, are carried out using both qualitative approaches and the latest mathematical and cybernetic tools for collecting and processing information. There are several types of comparative studies: cross-national comparison is focused on comparing states with each other; comparatively oriented description of individual cases; binary analysis based on comparison of two (most often similar) countries; cross-cultural and cross-institutional comparisons aimed respectively at comparing national cultures and institutions.
Systemic the method focuses on the integrity of the policy and the nature of its relationship with the external environment. The system method finds the widest application in the study of complex developing objects - multilevel, as a rule, self-organizing. These include, in particular, political systems, organizations, and institutions. With a systematic approach, an object is considered as a set of elements, the relationship of which determines the integral properties of this set. For example, among political institutions, an important place belongs to the state. In its analysis, the main emphasis is on identifying the variety of connections and relationships that take place both within the state (system) and in its relationship with the external environment (other political institutions within the country, states). With the help of the system method, it is also possible to clearly determine the place of politics in the development of society, its most important functions, and the possibilities for implementing changes. However, the system method is ineffective in the analysis of individual behavior in politics (for example, the role of a leader), in the consideration of conflicts and the study of crisis situations.
Psychological the method is focused on studying the subjective mechanisms of people's political behavior, their individual qualities, character traits, as well as on elucidating the typical mechanisms of psychological motivations, the role of subconscious factors in political life. The mechanisms of subconscious motivation have been studied by many scientists, but a special role in this direction belongs to Z. Freud. In his opinion, human actions are based on unconscious desires for sexual pleasure (libido). But they come into conflict with widespread social restrictions. The dissatisfaction and internal conflicts that arise on this basis lead to the sublimation (i.e. switching) of the energy of instincts in various areas of life, including the socio-political sphere. In general, psychologism plays a significant role in the study of the political sphere in a number of areas:
The impact of psychological factors on the development and adoption of political decisions and their perception by citizens;
Optimization of the image of power or political system;
Creation of psychological portraits of leaders;
Analysis of the dependence of the political behavior of citizens on their inclusion in the social environment;
Study of the psychological characteristics of various social groups (ethnic groups, classes, interest groups, crowds, demographics, etc.), etc.
made a revolution in political science behavioral method. Behaviorism (from English - behavior) is literally the science of behavior. The essence of behaviorism is the study of politics through the concrete study of the diverse behavior of individuals and groups. The starting position of behaviorism is the assertion that human behavior is a reaction to the influence of the external environment. This reaction can be observed and described. Politics, the behaviorists argue, has a personal dimension. The collective, group actions of people, one way or another, go back to the behavior of specific individuals who are the main object of political research. Behaviorism rejects political institutions as an object of study and recognizes as such the behavior of individuals in political situations. Behaviorism played a significant role in the formation and development of comparative and applied political science. It is within the framework of behaviorism that the concrete-empirical methods used by political science have received comprehensive development. The group of specific empirical methods includes: population surveys, analysis of statistical material, study of documents, game methods, mathematical modeling, study of folklore (chastushkas, anecdotes, etc.), etc.
Polls population, which are conducted both in the form of questionnaires and interviews, provide rich factual material for identifying various kinds of patterns. And their careful analysis makes it possible to make political forecasts. Analysis of statistical materials allows you to get fairly reliable results in identifying trends in the development of political processes. Studying documents includes analysis of official materials: party programs, transcripts of government and parliamentary meetings, various kinds of reports, as well as diaries and memoirs. Film and photographic documents, posters can be of considerable interest. Application gaming methods makes it possible to simulate the development of a particular political phenomenon (negotiations, conflict, etc.). This allows researchers to reveal the internal mechanisms of the phenomenon under study, to issue recommendations for decision-making. Method of mathematical modeling consists in the study of political processes and phenomena through the development and study of models. For example, measuring, descriptive, explanatory and predictive models are distinguished by purpose.
Today, in connection with the improvement of computers and software, the modeling of political macro- and microprocesses has become one of the primary directions in the development of the methodology of political science.
General Theoretical Specific Empirical
Institutional Polls
Historical Analysis of Statistical Materials
Comparative Document Study
System Gaming
Psychological Mathematical Modeling
Behavioral Study of Folklore
Scheme 3 Main research methods used by political science
The role of political science especially increases in the conditions of a reformed society, when it is necessary to make serious changes in the structure of the political system, in the content of the political process and in the nature of power. Political science helps to solve problems that arise along the way, regulate public consciousness and control the political behavior of various groups of people.
Literature
1. Borisenko A.A. On the subject and content of political science. // Social and humanitarian knowledge. - 2001. - No. 4.
2. Gabrielyan O. Political Science in Ukraine: Stan and Perspectives. // Political thought. - 2001. - No. 4
3. Kim Hong Myont. Tasks of political science in the conditions of the market. // Polis. - 2001. - No. 5.
4. Nikorich A.V. Politology. Heading guide for students of technical universities in all specialties.-Kharkiv, 2001.
5. Picha V.M., Khoma N.M. Politology. Head helper. - K., 2001.
6. Political science: Textbook for universities / Ed. M.A. Vasilika. – M.. 2001.
7. Politology: A handbook for students of the highest initial pledges / As edited by O. V. Babkino, V. P. Gorbatenko. - K., 2001.
8. Tax O. Ukrainian science about politics. Potential assessment test. // Political management. - 2004. - No. 1.
Political science as a branch of science studies the political life of society. The emergence of political science is due, on the one hand, to the public need for scientific knowledge of politics, its rational organization, and effective public administration; on the other hand, the development of political knowledge itself. The need for theoretical understanding, systematization, analysis of the experience and knowledge accumulated by mankind about politics has led to the natural formation of an independent science.
The name itself - "political science" is formed from two Greek words: politike - state, public affairs; logos - word, doctrine. The authorship of the first concept belongs to Aristotle, the second - to Heraclitus. Thus, in a general sense political science This is the doctrine of politics.
Political science – it is the science of political power and management, the patterns of development of political relations and processes, the functioning of political systems and institutions, political behavior and activities of people.
Like any science, political science has its own object and object of knowledge . Recall that in the theory of knowledge as object that part of the objective reality that is directed to the subject-practical and cognitive activity of the researcher (subject) appears.
The object of political science how science is political sphere of society , that is, a special sphere of people's life associated with power relations, the state-political organization of society, political institutions, principles, norms, the operation of which is designed to ensure the functioning of society, the relationship between people, society and the state.
As a science of politics, political science “covers” the entire spectrum of political life, including both its spiritual and material, practical aspects, as well as the process of interaction between politics and others. areas of public life:
ü production or economic and economic (sphere of production, exchange, distribution and consumption of material assets);
ü social (the sphere of interaction between large and small social groups, communities, layers, classes, nations);
ü spiritual (morality, religion, art, science, which form the basis of spiritual culture).
The political sphere of social relations is directly or indirectly studied by many sciences (philosophy, sociology, history, theory of state and law, etc.), but political science considers it from its own specific point of view, or, in other words, has its own subject of study.
The subject of a particular study science is that part, the side of objective reality (politics in our case), which is determined by the specifics of this science. The subject of the study is to identify the most significant regular connections and relations of objective reality from the point of view of this science.
As subject of study of political science phenomenon political power (its essence, institutions, patterns of origin, functioning, development and change); In addition, political science studies itself politics - as a special type of activity associated with the use of political power in the process of implementing individual, group and public interests.
Structure and functions of political science knowledge, methods of political science.Difficulty and more the complexity of the object and subject of the study of political science is reflected in its content and structure. Under structure of political science refers to the totality of political science knowledge and research issues, grouped in separate areas. At the same time, individual structural elements are usually considered as sections of political science. In accordance with the nomenclature adopted by the International Association of Political Science, the main structural elements, or sections, of political science include:
1. Theory and methodology of politics - reveals the philosophical and methodological foundations of politics and power, their content, features, functions and patterns.
2. Theory of political systems - explores the essence, structure and functions of political systems, characterizes the main political institutions - the state, parties, social movements and organizations.
3. Theory of management of socio-political processes - studies the goals, objectives and forms of political leadership and management of society, the mechanisms for making and implementing political decisions.
4. History of political doctrines and political ideology - reveals the genesis of political science, the content of the main ideological and political doctrines, the role and functions of political ideology.
5. International Relations Theory – examines the problems of foreign and world politics, various aspects of international relations, global problems of our time.
In addition, based on the tasks solved by political science, it is customary to single out theoretical and applied political science .
Political science, like any science, performs a number of functions scientific-cognitive, methodological and applied nature. The main ones are the following:
· Gnoseological (cognitive) function , the essence of which is the most complete and concrete knowledge of political reality, the disclosure of its inherent objective connections, main trends and contradictions.
· Worldview function , the practical significance of which lies in the development of the political culture and political consciousness of citizens from the everyday level to the scientific and theoretical, as well as in the formation of their political beliefs, goals, values, orientation in the system of socio-political relations and processes.
· ideological function, the social role of which is to develop and substantiate a state ideology that contributes to the stability of a particular political system. The essence of the function is the theoretical substantiation of political goals, values and strategies for the development of the state and society.
· Instrumental function (function of rationalization of political life), the essence of which is that political science, studying the objective patterns, trends and contradictions of the political system, solves the problems associated with the transformation of political reality, analyzing the ways and means of purposeful influence on political processes. It substantiates the need for the creation of some and the elimination of other political institutions, develops optimal models and management structures, predicts the development of political processes. This creates a theoretical basis for political construction and reforms.
· predictive function, the value of which is to predict the future development of political phenomena, events, processes. As part of this function, political science seeks to answer the questions: “What will be the political reality in the future and when will certain expected, predictable events occur?”; “What will be the possible consequences of the actions taken now?” and etc.
Political science uses a wide range of methods , i.e. a set of methods and techniques that science uses to study its subject. Method determines the direction, the path of research. A skillful choice of methods ensures the effectiveness of cognitive activity, the reliability (objectivity) of the results obtained and the conclusions drawn. In political science, both general and particular methods of cognition are used:
Formation and development of political science as a science and academic discipline. Throughout a long historical period, knowledge about politics has been included into the system of ordinary political ideas, religious and philosophical and ethical views. Political science acquired its modern content in the second half of the 19th century, when it took place. organizational design as an independent scientific and educational discipline.
- What was taught to women who became guards in concentration camps Torture used by the Nazis
- Singer Alex Malinovsky: biography, career, personal life, photo Let's start the story again
- Do I need to shave the testicles and how to do it right at home How to shave the eggs
- Chinese girls with small breasts
- Famous girls with small breasts
- Shoulder girdle: why you can’t sympathize with Russian truckers
- How to clean your computer from junk and speed up its work
- Wedding predictions for guests: funny and funny ideas Comic fortune-telling of a gypsy in prose
- Business on coffee grounds or how to open a mobile coffee shop on wheels?
- Congratulation of a gypsy on a woman's anniversary
- Define the concepts: choir, vocal ensemble, trio, duet, solo
- Guy's Room Design: Ideas and Examples
- General rules for drawing up a foundation plan House foundation drawings
- modern art deco bedroom small art deco bedroom
- Pansies: characteristics and photos of flowers
- Making an art deco bedroom: the choice of materials Beige art deco bedroom
- Bedroom interiors in art deco style Bedroom art deco style beige
- Young: planting and care in the open field Young planting and care in the open
- Varieties for open ground
- Pansies: cultivation and care in the open field