Domestic and foreign policy. What is politics? Policy etc following

POLITICAL SCIENCE

Man is a political being. This truth was formulated by the great ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. Politics affects the interests of all people.

Political science- one of the youngest humanities disciplines. It took shape in the late 1940s. 20th century. It originated in philosophy. Scientists note the formation of specific political issues only in the 16th century. This is connected with the works of the Italian thinker N. Machiavelli. Political science was influenced by public law (constitutional and administrative). At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, a systematic study of politics. Political science- from ancient Greek politics and doctrine. The Science of Politics. An object political science is the political sphere of public life. This is the sphere of state-organized communications, interactions and relations.

Politics - from the ancient Greek polis, city-state. Aristotle's treatise "Politics" - something that relates to the state, public affairs, the art of government.

Policy definitions.

1. Politics- these are relations between states, classes, social groups, nations arising from the capture, exercise and retention of political power in society, as well as relations between states in the international arena.
2. Politics- this is the activity of state bodies, political parties, public associations in the sphere of relations between social groups (classes, nations, states), aimed at integrating their efforts in order to strengthen political power or conquer it.
3. Politics- the sphere of activity of groups, parties, individuals, the state, connected with the realization of generally significant interests with the help of political power.
4. Politics- participation in state affairs
5. Politics- the art of government
6. Politics - science of public administration.

political science

Political relations of social subjects regarding state power

Attitudes, interests, goals of social groups and political institutions

Doctorate on the implementation of models of the future society

Influence on the state power of the political forces of the country (parties, citizens)

Doctorate in management of spheres of life of the Society.

Policies:

On spheres about-va - economic, social, national, scientific, ecological, cultural, military;

In terms of scale - internal and external;

By priorities - neutral, open doors, compromises, national reconciliation;

By subjects - the state, the world community, parties, banks, firms.

Political science- it is the science of a state-organized society as a functioning and developing political system based on the interaction of its constituent elements: political subjects, political institutions and political consciousness.

Other sciences are closely connected with political science: political philosophy, political history, political sociology, political psychology, political anthropology, political geography, jurisprudence.

A prominent place in the history of political thought of antiquity is occupied by the views Plato(5th-4th century BC), set forth in the works "State", "Laws". He attributed to the vicious forms of the state:

- timocracy - the power of the ambitious;

- oligarchy- dominance of the few rich;

- democracy- majority rule

- tyranny - the power of a tyrant.

The ideal state according to Plato is the just rule of the sages. Justice. Hierarchy: rulers - philosophers, warriors - guards, artisans and peasants - physical labor.

Aristotle all forms of state-va divides into correct and incorrect. Correct - the goal of the state is in the common good (monarchy, aristocracy, republic). Wrong - the benefit of the ruler, not the people (tyranny, oligarchy, democracy).

In ancient Rome, he contributed to the development of political thought Cicero(1st century BC) in On the State, Laws. Legal equality. Justice. Three forms of state-va: royal power, the power of optimists (aristocracy), people's power (democracy). The best form is mixed - the strength of the state and the legal equality of its citizens.

Medieval philosophers - power - God's providence. Augustine Aurelius (4-5 centuries). Thomas Aquinas(13th century) - a supporter of the monarchy. Two types of monarchy: absolute and political. Political is preferable.

During the Renaissance Italian Niccolò Machiavelli(15th-16th century). The works "Sovereign" and "Discourses on the first decade of Titus Livius". He believed that profit and power lie at the heart of political behavior. In politics the end justifies the means.Two way

actions to achieve the goal: the path of law and the path of violence. The sovereign must be able to use both methods. Machivelianism- policy based on the cult of brute force, disregard for moral standards.

In modern times, the philosophers Hobbes, Locke, Spinoza, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Hobbes are the founders of the social contract theory . Hobbes- in the work “Leviathan or Matter, Form and Power of the State”. There can be three forms of the state: monarchy, democracy and aristocracy. Hobbes is a defender of monarchical power.

Locke in Two Treatises on State Government. The idea of ​​a right-wing state-va-gos-in is subordinate to society.

Montesquieu in On the Spirit of the Laws. Freedom and equality. “Everything that is not forbidden by law is allowed.” The theory of separation of powers.(The idea of ​​mixed government was developed by Aristotle and Cicero). For the first time this idea found its embodiment in England during the reign of Cromwell, albeit spontaneously.

Jean Jacques Rousseau and the work On the Social Contract or the Principles of Political Law introduces the concept of social equality. principle of popular sovereignty. Republican principle.

The ideas of the French enlighteners were embodied in the Great French Revolution of the 18th century.

German classical philosophy.

Kant(German Phil. 18th century). Works "Towards eternal peace", "Metaphysical principles of the doctrine of law". Autonomy of the individual. Man is an end, not a means. Law and order. Politics is the harmony of purpose and means.

Hegel(German Phil. 19th century). The work "Philosophy of Law" is an idealistic theory of state and law. The doctrine of free will. The doctrine of civil society and the rule of law. The ideal is a constitutional monarchy.

Thus, the main doctrines of the political thought of the Renaissance and the period of bourgeois revolutions:

- theory of popular sovereignty(17-19 century) based on the theory of the social contract. According to this theory, people are the source of power and its bearer.

- rule of law theory

- theory of separation of powers.

Representatives of utopian socialism of the 16th-19th centuries.

Ancestor- Thomas More(15-16) in the book Utopia (a place that does not exist). Public ownership of the means of production. Collectivism, planned management of the economy. Labor is the first need, labor education. From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs. Social equality, equality of women. The withering away of the state.

Stages of utopian socialism.:

- early (16-18) the emergence of capitalism and bourgeois revolutions. Representatives: Mor (England), Campanella (Italy), Winstanley, Mably, Mellier, Babeuf (France).

The second stage is the 18th century, the Age of Enlightenment. Representatives: Saint-Simon, Fourier (France), Owen (England).

Third stage 2nd half of the 19th century. Russian revolutionary democrats: Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Belinsky, Herzen and others. For a revolution, a democratic republic, democracy, a peasant community.

Marxist concept of politics. Marx and Engels German phil. 19th century.

Power struggle;

The basis is primary, and the superstructure is secondary;

The state is a product of class contradictions and serves the interests of the economically dominant class. State violence.

Ideologically dominant class

Social being determines consciousness

Politics is subordinate to the economy, but also affects it.

Political thought of Russia in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Decembrists. Equality. Civil society. Right of a person. Republic.

Chaadaev."Philosophical Letters". Causes of backwardness of Russia from European countries.

Westernizers and Slavophiles. 30-40s of the 19th century.

Slavophiles. Kireevsky, Khomyakov, Aksakov, Samarin. The identity of Russia. Preservation of autocracy.

Westerners. Belinsky, Granovsky, Herzen, Ogarev, Botkin. Russia is following the Western path.

Herzen.50-60 years. The idea of ​​"Russian socialism". through the rural community.

Chernyshevsky. People's Peasant Revolution. Populism.

Anarchist-rebellious direction. Bakunin. Rejection of any state.

Neo-Slavophilism. Religious philosophy. Solovyov. Berdyaev. Milyukov.

Modern political doctrines of the West.

Gumplovich. 19th century."Sociology and Politics", "Fundamentals of Sociology", "The Struggle of Races". Representative of social Darwinism. The theory of conquest.

Spencer. 19th century. positivist direction. "Foundations of Sociology". Society is evolving. Social conditionality of power.

Pareto and Mosca 19-20 century. Italian scientists. elite theory. Mosca in his work "Elements of Political Science" - power should always be in the hands of a minority, an elite. Pareto, Treatise on General Sociology. The elite and the counter-elite are fighting each other.

Ostrogorsky and Michels K.19-20 century. The theory of oligarchization (bureaucratization) of political parties.

Weber.19-20 century, German sociologist. The theory of democracy. Bureaucracy.

American scientists of the 20th century. Lasswell, Dahl, Toffler, Italian Bobbio, fr. Crozier. Issues of power in the transition to post-industrial society.

Each of us knows a lot about politics. We know everything about the policy of the state, our company, and even pursue our own political line in family relations. What is politics? Let's try to understand this issue.

What does "politics" mean

The word politics came to us from ancient Greek. It comes from the word politike, which translates as public or state affairs. Many famous philosophers gave their definition of politics. For example, Plato believed that politics is the art of managing all other arts (judicial, oratory, military, etc.) in order to improve the lives of citizens. Machiavelli believed that politics can be called knowledge about the correct and wise government of the state.

What is politics: a modern definition

Politics is the general direction for decision-making and actions that facilitate the achievement of the set goal. The policy sets out the directions to follow in order to achieve the goal. In addition, she explains why it is necessary to follow these directions. Although politics directs actions towards the fulfillment of a set task or the achievement of a certain goal, however, at the same time, it leaves freedom of action.

What is the essence of politics

The concept of "politics" has long been included in our speech and everyday life. But did it become clearer from this? Let's try to explain what the essence of the policy is:

1. Politics is created by state structures and social movements, so it is inextricably linked with them.
2. Politics is a struggle for power, the use of it and its retention.
3. Politics can be seen as a procedure for making decisions in a society in which there is no complete unity. These decisions can satisfy the interests of a large group of people or vice versa, a very narrow circle of people.
4. Politics can be compared to an art form. After all, a skilled politician always achieves the goal with minimal losses, is able to try on the warring parties, take into account both the long-term and short-term interests of his party, people and state. And all this is not possible if the politician does not have deep knowledge, talent, intuition.

What does politics do

Politics plays a significant role in the development of any society. Let's take a closer look at what politics in society does:

1. Ensures the stability and integrity of society.
2. Ensures the effectiveness and mobilization of all types of social activities.
3. Regulates and manages the public interest.
4. Provides socialist socialization by drawing the individual and entire groups of the population into social life.
5. It creates the rights and freedoms of the individual, and is also the guarantor of their observance.

What about politics

Politics can be attributed to everything that is in any way connected with social movements, political parties and state structures. This can be explained by the fact that it is all of the above that creates a policy, and, therefore, is inextricably linked with it. Any problem, if it falls into the sphere of attention of the state, a social movement or a party, immediately becomes a political problem.

What is included in the policy

Politics is a rich and varied world that includes:

1. Various sciences, as politics is inextricably linked with them.
2. Goals, interests and attitudes of various political institutions and social groups.
3. Mechanisms for coordinating and regulating interests that prevent a split in society.
4. Direct interaction of objects and subjects of policy.

The elements of politics can also include political relations, political power, political organization and culture, political consciousness, as well as subjects of politics.

What is an accounting policy

Accounting policy is the documentation that regulates the maintenance of tax and accounting records at an enterprise or organization, as well as a whole set of rules for reflecting expenses and income on the organization's accounts, putting property on the balance sheet and compiling reporting documentation.

In other words, an accounting policy can be viewed as a whole set of documents that facilitate accounting and reduce taxation.

A well-designed accounting policy allows you to legally reduce the taxation of an enterprise or organization.

The accounting policy is developed by the chief accountant, and approved by the head of the organization, who issues an order on its implementation.

Politics- this is a special way of regulating relations between large (masses, estates, nations), based on written laws and based on.

Politics is a very diverse social phenomenon that is difficult to "fit" in one definition. Therefore, our definition is provisional. Below we will consider various ideas about politics and try to determine the essence of the phenomenon under study.

Basic policy definition

In modern political science, there are many definitions of the concept of "politics". Moreover, in each definition, as a rule, attention is focused on one or another aspect of this complex phenomenon. For example, N. Machiavelli gave priority to the instrumental (pragmatic) approach in defining the policy. For him the essence of politics was the struggle for power. He defined politics as "the totality of the means that are necessary in order to come to power, stay in power and make good use of it."

M. Weber considered politics as certain actions aimed at gaining, retaining and using power. According to him, politics means the desire to participate in power, be it between states, be it within a state, between the groups of people that it contains. In this definition, along with action, the key word is "power".

The French sociologist R. Aron considered politics as a specific concept (program of action) and politics as an area of ​​public life in which various political concepts collide, giving rise to conflicts and consensus.

Conflict-consensus the idea of ​​politics suggests that real politics, on the one hand, is impossible without social conflict, and on the other hand, without finding public consent (consensus). So, K. S. Gadzhiev believes that “the phenomenon of the political is between two extreme interpretations, one of which considers politics entirely as the result of a clash of conflicting interests, and the second - as a system for managing order and ensuring justice in the interests of all members of society.”

The very concept of "politics" is often defined as the struggle of subjects pursuing incompatible interests and goals, the result of which is the establishment of a certain legal order. The social reality is such that, under any system, social classes and strata occupy an unequal position in society and have unequal access to public resources. At the same time, the policy pursued may be more or less humane, more or less competent, but its ambivalent (conflict-consensus) essence does not change from this. In any system, people are fighting for power, and in order to preserve their society (the state), they are forced to find compromises.

Supporters cognitive approach see in politics the science of the goals of the state and the best means to achieve them, as well as the art of living together and a way to fight for power and keep it.

Politics, political methods are often understood as activities aimed at solving complex social problems in non-violent ways. In real politics, there are even the following concepts: “political solution to the problem”, “political settlement of the conflict”, etc.

Sufficiently capacious in its content is, in our opinion, the definition of policy proposed by V.P. Pugachev: with the help of the government." In this definition, politics is characterized as an activity; the subjects of activity are indicated - social groups and individuals; object of activity - collective interests; the essence of politics is the development of decisions binding on the whole society; means of implementing policy - state power.

However, no, even the most universal definition is able to cover the entire diversity of such a phenomenon as politics. Based on this, D.P. Zerkin believes that in scientific analysis it is necessary to consider politics in three dimensions:

• institutional- a set of political institutions within which ruling and managerial activities are carried out;
• regulatory- a set of values ​​and norms, goals and objectives of political activity;
• procedural - a system of actions to protect and implement common interests and goals for the exercise of power and government.

The well-known Western political scientist E. Heywood defines politics as "the creation, preservation and enrichment of the most general rules of the community." He identifies and analyzes four main ideas about politics: politics as the art of public administration; politics as a public process; politics as compromise and consensus; politics as power.

After analyzing and summarizing the above definitions of policy, we can identify the main components (forms of manifestation) of this phenomenon.

Politics is the process of regulating relations between large social communities, elites and leaders.

Therefore, she assumes publicity"public" activities. However, it cannot be argued that only public policy is the only "correct" policy, and everything else goes beyond the concept of "politics". In our opinion, this means moving away from real problems to the realm of ideal theoretical constructions. In reality, public policy is not always possible and not always beneficial to certain actors. Elites and leaders can solve political problems without initiating "large social communities" in them. In such situations, the following concepts are usually used: “latent politics”, “shadow politics”, “backstage politics”, “undercover struggle”, etc.

Politics can also be interpreted as the art of organizing and management society (state) with the help of state (political) power. It is only one of the types of management of social relations in society. In addition to political, there are other types of governance, such as administrative, legal, economic, socio-cultural, etc. But political governance, due to the fact that it has a monopoly on political power in society, dominates all other types of governance. Therefore, where all other types of management in solving emerging social problems and conflicts are ineffective, there is a need to apply political methods of management.

Another important attribute of a policy is its legal component. Politics, in fact, begins with the introduction of contractual relations and written laws into the management system of society. Legal norms (laws) give politics a certain logic of development, make it predictable, create a common legal field, and determine the limits of competence of subjects and participants in the political process.

Politics- this is a relationship about the capture, retention and use of state power.

Therefore, the next policy component is power. It is the attribute of power and the possibility of its application that distinguishes political management from all other types of management. The struggle for and power in society is one of the main activities for all political actors. Therefore, politics can be understood as the art of organizing and managing society with the help of state (political) power. Possession of political power allows its holder (individual, group, institution) to impose his will on other people, to control others.

The struggle for power presupposes conflict, and the regulation of relations between large social communities presupposes consensus. Therefore, policy can be defined as relations between political subjects, which are characterized by permanent states conflict and consensus. At the same time, political stability can be viewed as the art of "balancing" between various political forces and trends (the art of compromise).

The most important component of politics are, between which there are, first of all, political relations, that is, relations about power. The subjects of political relations can be separate individuals representing certain political forces, social and political groups, organizations and movements, large and small political communities, public and political institutions, the state. But most often the subjects of politics are political elites and leaders who can be members of certain political groups, parties, movements, head state institutions. In Western sociology and political science, the subjects of politics are usually called actors.

For example, in English, three key words are related to the term "politics":

• "politics" - the political sphere of society;
• "polity" - political system;
• "policy" - a political strategy pursued by various power structures.

Therefore, in modern foreign literature, politics is often defined as: the exercise of influence and power; form of domination; way to resolve conflicts; achievement of collective goals; social activity associated with the production and distribution of resources.

A number of foreign researchers believe that the meaning of politics most accurately reflects its definition, firstly, as a course on the basis of which decisions are made, measures for the implementation and formulation of tasks (for example, domestic policy, international policy, social policy, etc.) ; secondly, as a specific sphere where people and political formations are fighting for state power (in this sense they say: “Do politics”, “Stay away from politics”); thirdly, as the art of managing people in society (therefore they say: “Everything is politics”).

In Russian, the word "politics" is used in such meanings as:

• political life of society;
• strategy of activity in a certain area;
• management of public affairs;
• power struggle;
• form of social consciousness.

The variety of approaches to the study of politics in modern political science allows us to consider politics as a multidimensional social phenomenon. Some researchers see the multidimensionality of politics in the fact that it acts as a unity of sin-related aspects: 1) as a sphere of public life; 2) as one of the types of activity of social subjects, their combined activities and individual behavior; 3) as a type of social relations (between individuals, social groups).

As the most general definition of politics, reflecting its multifaceted social nature, we can offer the following.

Politics- the sphere of social life and activity associated with power-subordination relations in society, with the conquest, retention, use of power.

At present, there are two main understandings of politics - as a subsystem of society and as a management activity.

Styles and Policy Types

Politics as a management activity is always associated with the adoption of political decisions. Actors participating in political life, as well as making political decisions, in political science are called political actors. These include the masses, social groups, communities (nations), collectives, individuals through the relevant organizations and directly.

The procedure for making political decisions is called politics style.

The basis for the selection of policy styles are:

1. approaches of a political subject to solving managerial problems, which can be:

• reactive, characterized by the installation of response to the situation (the policy of "patching holes");
• creative, characterized by anticipation of a possible change in the situation and creative activity aimed at changing the situation in the right direction ("development policy");

2. relations of a political subject making political decisions with other participants in the political process, which can be built on the basis of:

• making management decisions by coordinating various interest groups;
• imposing political decisions on other political actors.

The development of policy style is significantly influenced by:

• political culture of "managers";
• "massovization" of the political process, associated with the activation of various interest groups, which makes it difficult to achieve agreed decisions in certain sectors of politics;
• the emergence of various forms of non-traditional political participation that are contrary to established political norms.

In most modern societies, a style of politics dominates, where the government's approach to solving managerial problems is more reactive, and political changes are achieved by imposing the government's decisions against the resistance of certain interest groups.

In political science, there are also various policy types as a managerial activity:

• directive, based on direct coercive violence. The main organizational resource of such a policy is the cohesion and will of "their own" who are harshly and hostilely opposed to "them." This is a politics of power, where opponents seek to inflict damage on each other, and the one who has the least damage “wins”;
• functional, focusing on the "rules of the game", taking into account the diversity of existing social roles and institutions. This is a policy of compromise, when in the end everyone should receive exactly as much as he gives, and the general and particular "gain" lies in the avoidance of "damage";
• communicative, also based on the "rules of the game", which, however, can be changed along the way on predetermined principles. It is a policy of cooperation that leads to a common "win".

The listed policy types are its “ideal types”. In real political life, there is a contradictory combination of them.

Countries are the maintenance of ties and stability within the country and beyond its borders. The importance of both aspects of state activity cannot be overestimated. Domestic policy provides support for the government's course, promotes peace and harmony, and forms the integrity of the state.

The essence of the concept

Any state strives for self-preservation, development and stability. Therefore, the policy aimed at maintaining order in the country and uniting peoples in the world has a long history. Domestic policy as one of the most important functions of the state arises along with this social institution. In a global sense, this concept refers to the activities of the state to establish, maintain or reform the socio-political system through the solution of problems of a social, economic, cultural order. Domestic policy is designed to perform the following functions: organize the economic component, maintain the country in a state of stability, establish social justice in the distribution of benefits and rational, safe use of the country's resources, maintain law and order and preserve the unity of the state.

The Significance of the Domestic Policy of the State

Any state relies on its people in carrying out reforms aimed at developing the country and ensuring its integrity. Domestic policy in this case is a condition for the satisfaction of the population with their government. Only people who feel the care of the state about themselves are ready to work for its benefit, to connect their future with it. Human capital is the main wealth of the country, and people need to be taken care of.

This is the highest significance of domestic policy. A satisfied population will help the state achieve high results in foreign policy and in the implementation of the most ambitious plans. Domestic and foreign policy are thus closely intertwined. They influence each other and their results affect all areas of the life of the population and the state. For the population of the country, domestic policy should be understandable and close, only then it will be successful and supported. Therefore, the state must establish special communication relations with the population in order to talk about goals and plans.

Principles of domestic policy

The state in carrying out its course relies on the main law - the Constitution. In addition, internal policy is based on several principles:

• the state always and in everything protects the dignity of the individual;
• the realization of the rights and freedoms of one person must not violate the constitutional guarantees of other people;
• citizens of the country have the right to participate in the government of the country both independently and through their representatives in power;
• all people are equal before the law and the court;
• the state always guarantees the equality of citizens regardless of any circumstances, such as place of residence, race, gender, income, etc.

The internal policy of the state is built on the foundation of morality, justice and humanism. The government puts the interests of its people above everything and seeks to create the most comfortable living conditions for them.

Domestic policy structure

Numerous tasks facing domestic policy lead to the complexity of its structure. In general, it is divided into two areas: activities at the national level and actions at the regional level. These areas have different resources: primarily financial, as well as their own areas of responsibility.

In addition, traditionally, such areas of domestic policy are distinguished as economic, social, national, demographic and the sphere of strengthening statehood. There are attempts to identify smaller areas, but in general, this typology well reflects the main goals and zones of influence of the state within the country. All directions are even documented and visible in the structure of the country's governing bodies and regional regions. They can also highlight other areas, such as environmental protection, military, agricultural, cultural and law enforcement policy.

Strengthening statehood as a base for domestic policy

Preserving the integrity and unity of the state is one of the most important tasks that domestic policy solves. This is especially important in large, multinational countries like Russia, for example. Prevention of national strife and separatist attempts to single out certain regions as independent subjects of politics is very important, especially today, in times of growing national consciousness among small peoples. Keeping a region within a country, like Spain's Catalonia, for example, requires complex action at many different levels. This area also includes the promotion of national values, symbols and history. The state implements this function together with the media and various social institutions.

Economic policy

The most important is the economic domestic policy, which guarantees the stability of the country. Ensuring free competition, strict enforcement of antimonopoly legislation is one of the aspects of economic policy. An important part is also maintaining the stability of the financial system, this aspect includes the formation of the budget and control of its execution, as well as assistance to the national currency, and promotion of business development in the country. The main indicators for economic policy is the size of the GDP of the state's external debt. Also, the policy stimulates the renewal and modernization of the country's production capacities, creates a favorable environment for attracting investments, and regulates tax legislation. The country should create conditions for entrepreneurs who want to start their own business, as well as help retain young professionals and highly qualified personnel.

Social politics

The Department of Domestic Policy is most often associated with social policy. Indeed, it is one of the most important, as it directly concerns every person in the state and is felt by the inhabitants of the country every day. The state must provide the population with an acceptable standard of living, focusing on the protection of socially disadvantaged groups: orphans, the disabled, single parents, pensioners, the unemployed. An important part of social policy is the protection of the health of citizens, which includes the organization of qualified medical care, the provision of medicines to those in need, the organization of sanatorium treatment, control over the quality of food and the cleanliness of the environment. Social policy also includes the regulation of disproportions in the incomes of the population, mitigation of the consequences of social inequality. In addition, it includes the regulation of the education sector, the creation of a system of preschool and school education, and the control of their quality. Often, the social sphere includes the work of the state in the field of culture and ecology.

Demographic policy

The number of the population, its natural increase and decrease is the subject of concern of the state. It controls the demographics in the country, strives to achieve the optimal ratio between different age groups, the number of births and deaths of citizens. For example, for Russia it is important to increase the birth rate, since there is a decrease in the working-age population, while in China, on the contrary, it must be reduced due to too rapid population growth. The solution of demographic problems is impossible only by changing the legislation. Here it is necessary to conduct propaganda work, to use material mechanisms of influence.

National politics

The internal policy of the state pays great attention to the problems of relations between people of different nationalities and religions. Especially today, when ethnic conflicts are becoming more acute. The importance of state activity in this area is only increasing. The internal policy of Russia is aimed primarily at restoring friendly relations between people of different ethnic groups and cultures. It is also very important for the government to regulate migration processes that can provoke conflicts. Therefore, to anticipate and warn them in time is the goal of national policy. The task of the state is to create favorable conditions for the life of all citizens, regardless of their nationality, to stop possible discrimination on the basis of race and to promote the development of cultures and languages ​​of the peoples living in the country.

) were historically formed as urban communities with self-government, which constituted themselves as a political formation, a community - this form of self-organization of society was typical of Ancient Greece. Developed and spread through Italy and directly through the Roman Empire. With the growth of states and empires, the policy of relations with vast territories required the variability of politics and the improvement of the management system. Politics as a management methodology was formed in the policies, where the administrative elite and various classes (crafts, arts, schools) were concentrated, in which the future elite was formed.

The term itself was introduced in the 4th century BC. e . Aristotle, who proposed the following definition for it: politics is the art of managing a state (polis). However, politics stood out as a separate area of ​​social life long before this event - although later than, for example, economic relations or morality. There are several different views on the nature and origin of politics:

• Theological. According to this view, politics, like life in general, has a divine origin.
• Anthropological. This approach links politics with human nature: it is assumed that the appropriate type of communication and interaction with other people is dictated by the essence of man (and, on the other hand, it itself affects this essence, causing a number of self-limitations and other characteristic features that distinguish a person from an animal).
• biological. Such an interpretation, on the contrary, implies that the nature of politics should be understood on the basis of principles common to man and animal - such, for example, as aggressiveness, the instinct of self-preservation, the struggle for survival, etc. The ethologist K. Lorenz, in particular, linked with the phenomenon of aggressiveness of war, revolution and other conflicts that take place in the life of society.
• Psychological. According to this view, the primary source of political interaction between people are needs, interests, emotions and other manifestations of the human psyche. In a traditional vein, politics was interpreted, for example, by Z. Freud, who associated the nature of politics with the unconscious.
• Social. The corresponding approach assumes that politics is a product of society and was formed in the course of the evolution of the latter - as its complexity grew and social stratification developed. As a starting point for these social changes, the Neolithic revolution can be considered, which influenced both the forms of management and the way of life of people in general. In this case, the policy appearance logic looks something like this:
  • The growth of the productivity of human activity leads to the emergence of private property. The latter, in turn, contributes to the development of the economy, its specialization, as well as the formation of new social associations, deepens the autonomy and independence of the individual, providing it with the opportunity to achieve a certain position in society by economic means, and also enhances the stratification of society along property lines, giving rise to conflicts.
  • Social differentiation, including along ethnic and religious lines, is becoming more pronounced.
  • Demographic growth and the expansion of economic activity actualize the problem of the independence of one or another community from others, as well as the task of maintaining the integrity of the territories under the control of the specified community.

Accordingly, politics arises in connection with the loss of the opportunity to resolve the above problems and conflict situations by traditional methods - through customs, moral attitudes, etc. Along with law, politics acts as one of the new regulators designed to solve these problems; in addition, the state is being formed for the same purpose as a new form of structuring and organizing people's lives. Because of this, the concept of politics is directly associated with the concepts of state and power. In the concept of the political scientist M. Duverger, three forms of power are distinguished - anonymous, individualized and institutionalized; the first two are defined as pre-state, and the third - as the state itself, having a public character and causing the emergence of politics.

The Essence of Politics[ | ]

In the course of the development of scientific and philosophical thought, various definitions of politics were proposed: the general “royal art”, which consists in owning a set of specific ones (oratory, military, judicial, etc.), the ability to “protect all citizens and, if possible, make them the best out of the worst” (Plato), knowledge of correct and wise government (Machiavelli), leadership of the state apparatus or influence on this leadership (Max Weber), struggle of class interests (Karl Marx). At present, it is common to interpret politics as an activity that is expressed in the behavior of social groups, as well as a set of behaviors and that govern social relations and create power control as such, coupled with competition for the possession of the power of power. There is also the notion that, in its most general form, politics can be defined as a social activity aimed at maintaining or changing the existing order of distribution of power and property in a state-organized society (domestic policy) and the world community (foreign policy, global or world politics) .

Politics is a multifaceted social phenomenon that can be viewed as a tool for the conscious self-regulation of society. There are a number of definitions of politics, offered by various theoretical directions, which emphasize one of the main aspects of political activity: institutional, legal, economic, psychological, social, anthropological, etc.

Main approaches[ | ]

In a historical retrospective, the basic trends in determining the essence of politics, as well as in the field of its genesis, can be generalized within the framework of a combination of various theoretical approaches. These may include the following:

• Substantial. The definitions of politics are linked directly to the concept of power, defining politics either as management with the help of power, or as the desire to acquire and maintain it. Associated with this trend is the understanding of politics presented in the works of Niccolò Machiavelli, Max Weber and Karl Marx.
• Institutional. Definitions in which attention is focused on a particular organization or some community of people that performs power functions. As a rule, the state is designated as a key institution (such views were held, in particular, by Vladimir Lenin), but there are other variations that focus on other public institutions.
• Sociological. Within the framework of this approach, society is considered as a set of structurally organized groups that realize their needs and interests through power, and politics, respectively, as certain forms of activity of such social groups to fulfill the needs mentioned above.
• Teleological. Such an understanding of the essence of politics is associated with the concepts of organization, goal setting and goal achievement, due to which the scope of the term "policy" is significantly expanded.

In addition, in modern political science there are two opposite approaches to understanding politics: consensual and confrontational. The first involves the resolution of problems by non-violent and non-conflict methods, through cooperation and search Compromises, and politics in it is understood as an activity to achieve agreement between citizens, while within the framework of the second approach, politics is considered a sphere of conflict of interests, an area of ​​confrontation that implies the dominance of stronger entities or organizations over weaker ones. However, it should be noted that one should not exaggerate the significance and importance of any of these approaches: politics is the product of a struggle between two oppositely directed tendencies (conflicts of interest on the one hand and the search for balance on the other), which actually equalizes the consensus and confrontational approaches.

Alternative definitions[ | ]

• Politics - the struggle of many interests (the art of management, taking into account the interests of all sectors of society). The definition is connected with the etymology of the Greek. πολιτικός, where πολι (poly) means a bunch of, and τικός (thikos) - interest; (literally - "many interests") [ ] . So, civil servants in the cities of ancient Greece were called politicos, and citizens who had little interest in and participated in the political life of their city were called ιδιοτικός ( idiotikos) ;
• Politics is the art of the permissible. History points to the manipulation and aggressiveness of the policies of many rulers. Politics is management, a tool, and it must be distinguished from the goals and falsification (imitation character) of politics;
• Politics is an all-encompassing phenomenon of social life, penetrating all its forms and including all forms of social activity of people, all types of activities for their organization and leadership within the framework of production processes;
• Politics is the management of the allocation of resources;
• Politics is a sphere of social life associated with obtaining, retaining and using power;
• Politics is the desire to participate in power or to influence the distribution of power, whether between states, whether within a state between the groups of people that it contains;
• Politics is participation in the affairs of the state, the direction of the state, the definition of forms, tasks, content of the state's activities;
• Politics is the activity of an organization (its behavioral model), including the activities of the state to achieve its goals (interests), for example: - technical policy;
• Politics is any program of action, all types of activities for the independent management of something or someone. Accordingly, in this sense, we can talk, for example, about the monetary policy of the bank, about the school policy of city municipalities, about the family policy of the wife in relation to her husband and children, etc.;
• Policy - a set of measures and actions aimed at achieving a predetermined result;
• Politics is a form of public consciousness that expresses the corporate interests of the community and manifests itself in civil society (the state) in the form of trends, movements, trade unions and other public organizations and associations with specific interests. The most perfect and organized of them are the parties and the church;
• Politics is the art of bringing people together;
• Politics is a struggle for the right to set your own rules of the game;
• Politics - the art of evil in the name of good (philosophical and ethical definition in a broad sense);
• Politics is the enforced decree of a third party;
• Politics is someone's executable strategy to offer rights and freedoms. (Policy such and such may offer rights different from those offered by another policy);
• Politics - measures and actions taken by a leader in order to implement the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bhow things should be arranged in an environment subject to him. For example, the policy of the company "A" may change some functions in the equipment produced by it, in order to increase profits.

Functions [ | ]

In accordance with its purpose, the policy performs a number of fundamental functions:

• Implementation of the interests of social groups that are significant from the point of view of power.
• Regulation and streamlining of the processes and relations that exist in society, as well as the conditions in which labor and production are carried out.
• Ensuring both the continuity of the development of society and the adoption of new models of its evolution (that is, innovation).
• Rationalization of relations between people and mitigation of contradictions in society, the search for reasonable solutions to emerging problems.
• Setting goals for the development of society, determining the management tasks associated with them and ways to achieve them.
• Distribution and redistribution of wealth and resources in society through political mechanisms such as the formation of the state budget.
• Maintaining political communication between various social groups through the media, mediating activities in creating platforms for contacts between the authorities and civil society organizations, representatives of the conflicting parties.
• Guarantee of political rights and freedoms of citizens, observance of the principles of social equality and justice.

Structure [ | ]

In politics, subjects or actors are distinguished - free and independent participants in the political process (for example, certain communities of people, institutions, organizations, etc.), as well as objects - social phenomena with which subjects interact purposefully in one way or another. As a result of such interaction, political relations arise, which, in turn, are determined by the political interests of the subjects. All of the listed structural elements are influenced by political consciousness (a set of values, ideals, emotions, etc.) and political culture. The summation of these components forms the phenomena of a higher level of abstraction: the political system, political regime and political processes.

Kinds [ | ]

The classification of policy types is carried out on several grounds:

• By target area of ​​society:

• By direction or scale: internal and external.
• Content and nature:

• progressive,
• reactionary,

• scientifically based,
• voluntaristic.

Political processes and society[ | ]

The acceleration or, on the contrary, the delay in the development of society.

Political processes are based on a set of ideas and methods for their implementation. The policy is of a pronounced temporary nature, that is, it can change due to the change of leaders (managers).

Political systems and ideologies[ | ]

To date, 20 political and ideological systems are known:

Notable political figures[ | ]