The classical school of political economy is an interpretation of the subject of economic science. Classical political economy and its significance for economic thought - Abstract. The subject of study of mercantilism is: simple

The first theoretical direction, called "classical political economy", originated in the second half of the 17th century. and lasted until the end of the 19th century. Its existence can be divided into three stages.

The first stage lasted from the end of the 17th century to the end of the 18th century. It can be called the period of origin, and its representatives - the forerunners of classical political economy. Their work was not widely known as mercantilism continued to be the dominant economic concept. Only in the second half of the XVIII century. The French school of physiocrats became fairly well-known, but it still had unconditional dominance only within its own country.

The second stage, from the end of the 18th to the middle of the 19th century, already represents the complete dominance of classical political economy. The starting point here can be considered the work of the English economist A. Smith "A Study on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (1776). Since the beginning of the XIX century. economic science in the face of classical political economy was recognized as an independent science and began to be taught at universities as a separate course. At the same time, during the second period, the creative development of classical political economy continued - new theoretical positions were put forward, within the framework of classical political economy, separate trends appeared that differed both in class sympathies and in theoretical features and discussed among themselves. The last major theorists of the second stage were J.S. Mill, whose final work "Fundamentals of Political Economy" was published in 1848, and K. Marx,

a draft version of the work of which "Capital" was written in the late 1850s.

The third, final stage of classical political economy, which lasted from the middle to the end of the 19th century, can, like the first, be called transitional. On the one hand, the dominance of classical political economy remained, the corresponding course was taught at universities, but almost no new theoretical ideas were put forward. Beyond the 19th century only Marxism stepped over, which, relying on the methodological principles of classical political economy, began to analyze new phenomena that arose in the capitalist economy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. On the other hand, in the second half of the XIX century. new directions of economic science are already emerging, which became dominant in the 20th century - marginalism and institutionalism.

This periodization of classical political economy is not generally accepted, but it should be borne in mind that any classification and, accordingly, periodization depends on the chosen criteria, which, in turn, are embedded in the concepts of the subject and method of economic theory.

Thing

The subject of classical political economy was the sphere of production, which was considered the main, primary sphere of the economy. Accordingly, the product as a direct result of production began to be considered the wealth of the people. Thus, the view on the subject of study and the concept of the wealth of the people has changed in comparison with the ideas of mercantilism. The emergence of a new subject of study of economic thought was due to the fact that the development of classical political economy was a reflection of the spread of capitalist relations in industry and agriculture. The first stage of classical political economy corresponded to the period of development of manufacturing production, the second stage - the period of the "industrial revolution" in England and France.

Method

The methodology of classical political economy also differed from the methodology of mercantilism. Unlike the mercantilists, the classics no longer described, but analyzed economic phenomena using the method of logical abstraction, then systematized the theoretical categories obtained as a result of the analysis using the deduction method, moving from a general theory to its more particular manifestations. Such a general initial theory was the theory of value, determined by the costs of producing a product. The theory of value was taken as the basis for the theory of price, money, income, and so on. In other words, we can say that the principle of systematization of classical political economy is the principle of the initial category through which all other economic categories are interconnected (something like a “family tree”). It should be noted that all sciences at their initial stage used this systematization principle - the natural sciences went through the theories of the primary elements of the surrounding world, primary energy (phlogiston), philosophers argued for a long time what was primary - matter or consciousness, etc.

The formation of the methodology of classical political economy was greatly influenced by the change in priorities in the development of philosophy. Philosophy, in turn, was influenced by the further development of the natural sciences. Having accumulated significant experimental material, the natural sciences in the 17th century. proceeded to the development of a general theory of the surrounding world. The leader here was the English physicist I. Newton, who developed the theory of classical mechanics, which began to be used to explain all natural phenomena, from the microcosm to the cosmos (I, Newton "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", 1687). The same mechanistic, rationalistic approach began to spread to the explanation of social relations. Society was interpreted as an ordered world, bound by "natural" laws, a rational world, i.e. known by the mind. If the subjective actions of the rulers are contrary to the "natural" laws, the mind can indicate ways to solve these problems. This approach was pioneered in the 17th century. English philosophers T. Hobbes and J. Locke, who then passed the baton to the French philosophers of the Enlightenment of the 18th century. In classical political economy, such ideas manifested themselves in the position on “natural” (objective) economic laws in the theories of F. Quesnay and A. Smith and Smith’s category of “economic man”, which is mechanically directed to maximum benefit. The economy as a whole was presented as the sum of "economic people" or, in other words, as a kind of mechanism where economic entities act as cogs and gears. In addition to the idea of ​​an "economic man", classical political economy was characterized by the interpretation of economic relations as relations between classes.

7. The birth of classical political economy in England

Middle and second half of the 17th century. were a very important period in the history of England. At this time, England entered into a struggle for leadership with Holland, then dominant in European trade. One of the methods of this struggle was the development of their own manufactory production. At the beginning of the XVIII century. the struggle was successfully completed, and England became the world economic leader for a long time. In the political sphere, the same period is the time of bourgeois revolutions, as a result of which England became a constitutional monarchy. The economic upsurge was accompanied by the development of science. In the middle of the XVII century. in England, the Royal Society was created - the first academy of sciences of modern times. All these reasons contributed to the fact that it was in England that classical political economy was born.

The founder of classical political economy in England was William Petty (1623-1687), a physician by training. In his works Treatise on Taxes and Duties (1662), Word to the Wise (1664), Political Anatomy of Ireland (1672), Political Arithmetic (1676), Miscellaneous about Money (1682), along with elements mercantilism, new theoretical positions were already formed.

Subject and method

Unlike the mercantilists, Petty chose the sphere of production as the subject of study. The methodological feature was the appeal to the "natural" laws of economics.

1. The history of economic doctrines originates from the period of occurrence: simple

1) natural economic ideology

2. The study of the history of economic doctrines reveals that economic science is characterized by: average

2) non-unidirectional development

3. The study of the history of economic doctrines allows you to better understand in the development of economic science its: simple

3) past and present

4. The subject of studying the history of economic doctrines covers economic theories: simple

3) individual economists and schools of economic thought

5. The spokesmen of the economic thought of the pre-market era idealized: simple

2) natural-economic relations

6. The final stage of the era of economic doctrines of the pre-market economy was the stage: simple

1) mercantilism

7. The displacement of the previous stage or direction of economic thought by a new (alternative) stage or direction in the history of economic doctrines occurs: average

3) even before the end of the existence of a particular stage or direction

8. The stage of idealization of the principles of "pure" economic science took place in the era of economic doctrines: average

2) unregulated market economy

9. Hammurabi's laws regulated debt slavery with the aim of:average

5) prevent the destruction of the foundations of natural economy

10. Aristotle refers to the sphere of chrematistics:average

4) usury and trade and intermediary operations

11. In accordance with the economic views of Aristotle and F. Aquinas, money – This:simple

2) the result of an agreement between people

12. According to the concept of “fair price” by F. Aquinas, the cost (value) of a product is based on:average

4) h costly and moral and ethical principle at the same time

1. At the stage of the priority role in the economic science of mercantilism, the concept dominated:simple

1) protectionism

2. The subject of study of mercantilism is:simple

3. Priority method of economic analysis of mercantilism

is an: simple

1) empirical method

4. InIn accordance with the economic views of the mercantilists, wealth is: simple

1) gold and silver money

5. In accordance with the mercantilist concept, the source of monetary wealth is:average

5) excess of exports over imports

6. The government was engaged in damage to the national coin during the period:simple

1) early mercantilism

7. In accordance with the views of mercantilists, macroeconomic equilibrium is ensured in the country:simple

1) coordinating measures of the state

8. Colbertism – is a characteristic of protectionist policy in the economy, as a result of which the capacity of the domestic market: simple

3) A. Montchretien

1. At the stage of the priority role in the economic science of classical political economy, the concept dominated: simple

2) economic liberalism

2. subject fromthe teachings of classical political economy are:simple

2) sphere of production (offers)

3. In classical political economy, the priority method of economic analysis is:simple

2) causal method

4. In In accordance with the economic views of representatives of classical political economy, wealth is:

3) money and goods having a material essence

5. According to classical political economy, money – This:simple

3) a technical tool, a thing that facilitates the exchange

6. According to classical political economy, wages, as a worker's income, gravitate:average

2) to the living wage

3) quantity theory of money

8. W. Petty and P. Boisguillebert – founders of the theory of value, defined by:simple

1) labor costs (labor theory)

9. According to the classification proposed by F. Quesnay, farmers represent:simple

1) productive class

10. According to the teachings of F. Quesnay about the "pure product", the latter is created:average

5) in agricultural production

12. A. Turgot considers labor to be the only source of all wealth:average

2) farmer (farmer)

13. According to A. Smith, capital invested adds more value to real wealth and income:average

4) in agricultural production

14. "Invisible hand" by A. Smith – This:complicated

2) the operation of objective economic laws

15. According to the methodological position of A. Smith, private interest:average

2) stands above the public

16. In the structure of trade, A. Smith put in the first place:complicated

1) domestic trade

17. According to A. Smith, in every developed society the cost of goods is determined by:average

3) the amount of income

18. A. Smith considers labor productive if it is applied:simple

2) in any branch of material production

19. In the capital structure, A. Smith identifies the following parts:simple

2) fixed and working capital

20. The thesis "Smith's fabulous dogma" arose from K. Marx due to the fact that A. Smith: complicated

3) identifies the principle of identifying the value of the "annual product of labor" and "the price of any commodity"

21. N.S. Mordvinov, being a follower of the economic teachings of A. Smith, considers the source of the origin of wealth: average

4) industry, trade and science at the same time

22. A.K. Storch, being a follower of the economic teachings of A. Smith, admits the productive nature of labor: average

3) in material and non-material production

23. In accordance with the economic views of M.M. Speransky "gradual improvement of the public" involves the implementation of economic policy: average

3) protectionism and economic liberalism at the same time

1. When determining the cost, D. Ricardo adheres to:simple

1) labor theory

2. According to D. Ricardo, wages tend to decrease, because:average

2) high birth rates give rise to an excess supply of labor

1) as income from the land

2) the same as the farmer's profit

3) as well as profit in the industrial sector

4) as an additional income of the farmer in excess of the average profit in

field of activity

5) as a "free gift of the earth"

4. The downward trend in the rate of profit, according to D. Ricardo, is caused by the following reasons: complicated

2) a decrease in the relative level of the "market price of labor"

3) an increase in the relative level of the "market price of labor"

4) an increase in the high cost of land products due to a constant decrease in its

fertility

5) population decline

6) Increasing Population Rate

5. The main postulates of the "law of markets" Zh.B. Seya are: complicated

1) demand creates a corresponding level of supply

2) supply creates a corresponding demand

3) money as the most important independent factor in the reproduction process

4) money is neutral

5) prices, wages and interest rates are completely flexible,

mobile

6) state intervention in the economy is allowed

7) economic crises are impossible or their manifestation is always temporary and transient

6. "Say's Law" has exhausted its relevance with the emergence of economic doctrine: simple

4) J.M. Keynes

7. According to the theory of population of T. Malthus, the main causes of poverty are: complicated

1) imperfection of social legislation

2) constantly high population growth rates

3) consistently low wages

4) excessively high rates of scientific and technological progress

5) "the law of diminishing soil fertility"

8. The theory of population of T. Malthus from among the following authors was categorically rejected: complicated

1) D. Ricardo

2) S. Sismondi

3) P. Proudhon

5) J.S. Mill

6) K. Marx

7) A. Marshall

9. According to T. Malthus, "third parties" in the reproductive process manifest themselves as: complicated

1) the productive part of society

2) unproductive part of society

3) a factor contributing to the creation and implementation of public

product

4) factor constraining the full use of capital

5) a factor preventing general overproduction

2) D. Ricardo

3) J.S. Mill

4) K. Marx

5) T. Malthus

1) change the laws of production

2) change the laws of distribution

3) limit the right to inherit

4) abolish wage labor with the help of a cooperative productive association

5) overthrow the system of private property

6) socialize land rent with the help of land tax

7) to improve the system of private property for the sake of participation in the income it brings to each member of society

12. The only representative of classical political economy characterizes the category "capital" as a means of exploiting the worker and as a self-increasing value: simple

4) K. Marx

13. Which of the following causes, according to K. Marx, the tendency of the rate of profit to decrease: complicated

1) the transfer of capital from one occupation to another

2) an increase in the high cost of land products due to a decrease in its fertility

3) an increase in the relative level of wages of workers

4) a decrease in the share of variable capital in the capital structure

5) capital accumulation accompanied by an increase in the structure

capital share of permanent capital

14. Which of the listed variants of the provisions is guided by

K. Marx, if we assume that surplus value is created: average

1) labor, capital and land

2) unpaid labor of productive workers

3) constant capital

4) variable capital

15. In the theory of reproduction of K. Marx, such provisions are substantiated as: complicated

1) the cyclical nature of economic development under capitalism

2) the non-cyclic nature of economic development under capitalism

3) differences between simple and extended types of reproduction

4) the legitimacy of the doctrines of economic crises of underconsumption

5) the transient nature of economic crises under capitalism

16. A.I. Butovsky, as one of the Smithians of the post-manufacturing period, considers the definition of value possible on the basis of: average

2) cost theory

17. I.V. Vernadsky, as one of the Smithians of the post-manufacturing period, considers the definition of value possible on the basis of: average

1) labor theory

18. Being one of the opponents of the Marxist economic teachings of P.B. Struve believes that Russia should become a country: simple

3) rich capitalist

1. Romantic economists put forward reformist concepts that substantiate the expediency of priority development: simple

4) small commodity production

2. The reason for minimizing the wages of workers S. Sismondi considers: simple

3) displacement of workers' labor by machines and mechanisms

3. Of the following, directly P. Proudhon owns ideas about expediency: complicated

1) the leading role in the economy of public property

2) the organization of the banks of the people

3) the abolition of money and the creation of constituted value

4) preference for the functional method over causal analysis

5) introduction of an interest-free loan

6) liquidation of state power

4. According to utopian socialists, property should have priority in the economy: simple

3) nationwide

5. The historical school of Germany considers as a subject

economic analysis: simple

6. S.Yu. Witte, as a supporter of the methodology of the German historical school, substantiates the proposition that: simple

2) the public interest must take precedence over the interest of the individual

1. Marginalism (marginal economic theory) is based on

study: simple

3) marginal economic values

2. The subject of study of the subjective-psychological direction of economic thought is: simple

1) sphere of circulation (consumption)

3. The priority method of economic analysis of the subjective-psychological direction of economic thought is: simple

4) the theory of marginal utility

1. The subject of study of the neoclassical direction of economic thought is: simple

3) the sphere of circulation and the sphere of production at the same time

2. The priority method of economic analysis of the neoclassical direction of economic thought is: simple

3) functional method

3. A. Marshall's term "representative firm" characterizes the type of firm: simple

3) medium

4. The cost of goods A. Marshall is characterized on the basis of:

1) identifying the point of intersection of supply and demand curves

3) J.B. Clark

6. The criterion for achieving general economic equilibrium, according to V. Pareto, should be considered: simple

1) measuring the ratio of preferences of specific individuals

7. In accordance with the economic views of N.Kh. Bunge cost is determined by: average

3) supply and demand

8. In accordance with the economic views of M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky and V.K. Dmitriev, the determination of the cost is possible on the basis of: average

3) the synthesis of labor theory and the theory of marginal utility

1. At the stage of the priority role in the economic science of institutionalism, the concept dominated:simple

3) social control of society over the economy

2. As a subject of economic analysis, representatives of institutionalism put forward: simple

5) a combination of economic and non-economic factors

3. Priority research methods in institutional theory are: average

1) causal

2) historical and economic

3) functional

4) empirical

5) logical abstraction

6) social psychology

4. The concept of the Veblen effect characterizes the situation of the influence of consumer behavior on growth demand due to:simple

1) with an increased price level

1) the transition to the "industrial system"

6. According to J. Commons, the cost is formed: simple

1) legal agreement of "collective institutions"

7. Of the following stages in the evolution of "capitalism", J. Commons identifies the following: average

1) free competition capitalism

2) money economy

3) financial capitalism

4) credit economy

5) administrative capitalism

8. The antitrust concepts of T. Veblen and J. Commons were first tested: average

4) during the "new course" of F. Roosevelt

9. U.K. Mitchell is the founder of one of the currents of institutionalism, called: simple

2) market-statistical

10. The economic doctrine of W.K. Mitchell was the basis for: simple

4) the concept of a crisis-free cycle

11. Market theories with imperfect competition arose: simple

1) after the world economic crisis of 1929-1933.

12. In the theory of monopolistic competition by E. Chamberlin, the main sign of "product differentiation" is the presence of a product of one of the sellers of any significant feature, which can be: average

5) both real and imaginary

13. According to E. Chamberlin, monopolistic competition gives rise to the phenomenon of excess capacity, due to the formation of seller prices: average

3) exceeding costs

14. In conditions of imperfect competition, according to J. Robinson, the size (capacity) of firms: simple

1) exceed the optimal level

1. From the following provisions, the basis of the research methodology

J.M. Keynes are: complicated

1) priority of microeconomic analysis

2) priority of macroeconomic analysis

3) the concept of "effective demand"

4) adherence to the “law of markets” J.B. Say

5) investment multiplier

6) propensity for liquidity

2. To stimulate consumer demand for investment, the state, according to J.M. Keynes, should actively promote the regulation of the rate of interest on loans: simple

1) downward

3. In accordance with the "basic psychological law" J.M. Keynes with the growth of income, the growth rate of consumption: simple

5) increase, but not to the same extent as income

4. Neoliberalism, unlike Keynesianism, suggests: complicated

government measures to invest unprofitable and low-

profitable sectors of the economy

2) liberalization of the economy

3) growth in government orders, purchases and loans

4) free pricing

5) priority of private property

5. The term "social market economy" was first used by: simple

3) A. Muller-Armac

6. The Freiburg school of neoliberalism in the concept of the social market economy adheres to the following principles: complicated

competition wherever possible, regulation where necessary

automatic functioning of the "free market economy"

synthesis between free and "socially obligatory public

4) concentration of power and collectivism

5) social equalization through fair distribution

7. The leader of the Chicago school of neoliberalism, M. Friedman, in his concept of state regulation of the economy, considers the following principles to be fundamental: complicated

1) prioritization of non-monetary factors

2) priority of monetary factors

3) the stability of the "Phillips curve"

Phillips curve instability

stability of the growth rate of the amount of money, taking into account the "natural

unemployment rates" (ENB)

are: average

1) J.M. Keynes

2) V.V. Leontiev

3) E. Chamberlin

4) P. Samuelson

5) M. Friedman

9. The main scientific achievement of the Russian Nobel Laureate in Economics L.V. Kantorovich is the development of: average

1) linear programming models in the process of using resources

The methodology of classical political economy is presented in the works of the outstanding founders of this school: A. Smith (“Study on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations”, 1776), D. Ricardo (“Principles of Political Economy and Taxation”, 1817), N. Senior, J. Mill and others. A. Smith considered the subject of economic science to be economic development and the growth of the welfare of society, the development of the economy is based on the material resources of society. The main provisions of A. Smith's methodology are as follows:

The interests of individuals coincide with the interests of society;

- "economic man" is a person endowed with selfishness and striving for ever greater accumulation of wealth;

An indispensable condition for the operation of economic laws is free competition;

The pursuit of profit and free trade are valued as activities beneficial to the whole society;

An “invisible hand” operates in the market, with the help of which free competition controls the actions of people through their interests and leads to the resolution of social problems in the best way, which is most beneficial to both individuals and the whole society;

Recognition of the operation of objective economic laws;

Quantitative approach to economic patterns (finding quantitative relationships between such categories as cost, wages, profit, rent, interest, etc.);

Use in research of the abstract method.

As a result, he concluded that state regulation should be minimal.

A. Smith described his research method as a system of reasoning in which we first set ourselves "by some principles, obvious or proven, on the basis of them we explain a number of phenomena, linking everything together with a common logic of reasoning." A. Smith associated science with "surprise", this allows you to make unexpected discoveries and admire.

D. Ricardo believed that the main task of economic science is to identify the economic laws that govern the distribution of the product between classes. He formulated an economic law - "the law of the falling rate of profit", created the theory of land rent. D. Ricardo considered economic theory to be a science not because of the methods it uses, but because of the reliability of its conclusions.

N. Senior argued that economics is based on "a few general premises that follow from observations of the surrounding reality or common sense and which almost every person, having barely heard about them, would recognize as fair, since they coincide with his own observations."

N. Senior identified the following prerequisites:

1) each person seeks to maximize his well-being with the least possible effort;

2) the population is growing faster than the amount of resources needed to feed it;

3) labor armed with machines can produce a positive net product;

4) in agriculture, the rate of return decreases.

James Mill defined economics as "mental". She is interested in human motives and the way people behave in economic life. Mill singled out the following motives: the desire for wealth, the thirst for free time, non-economic motives (habits, customs). He considered political economy an abstract science that uses an a priori method, i.e. a way of philosophizing that has nothing to do with experience at all. An a priori method is a way of reasoning based on some hypothesis. Since a hypothesis is a premise, it may not have a factual basis, and in this sense it can be said that the conclusions of political economy, like the conclusions of geometry, are only true in the abstract, i.e. under some assumptions. Thus, J. Mill understood political economy as a science as a deductive analysis based on some psychological premises and abstracting from all economic aspects of human behavior. Deduction is a way of reasoning from general provisions to particular ones, the derivation of particular provisions from some general thought (the opposite of induction). Mill believed that economic laws act like trends.

The main methodological provisions of classical political economy can be expressed in the following paragraphs:

1 Classical political economy is a theory of wealth. She studied the economy mainly at the output, from the side of the material result of production activity - the social product, its structure and dynamics. The product theory of the classical school was used later in the studies of K. Marx, V. Leontiev and others, in economic statistics, in various growth theories. Its empirical base and methods are working with macroeconomic data;

2 The classical school is a school of political economy, not economics. She did not just analyze economic phenomena, but tried to consider them in connection with political, cultural, legal and other relations in society. The theorists of this school had a synthetic, integrating approach;

3 The classical school sought to create an extremely abstract picture of economic reality. This led to a large extent to a gap between the theoretical and empirical basis in scientific research and gave rise to criticism of this direction by K. Marx and the German historical school (W. Roscher, G. Schmoller, etc.);

4 Classical political economy mainly adopted a qualitative methodology for studying economic phenomena, which led to the presence of large errors in their conclusions and caused a subsequent wave of criticism from other directions.

A. Smith and D. Ricardo laid the foundation for the labor theory of value. A. Smith introduced into scientific circulation and distinguished between use and exchange value of goods: “The word value has two different meanings: sometimes it denotes the usefulness of an object, and sometimes the possibility of acquiring other objects, which gives the possession of this object. The first may be called use-value, the second exchange-value.

A. Smith begins his research with the division of labor, which plays an important role in increasing labor productivity and in the growth of national wealth. It is with the division of labor that he associates the idea of ​​\u200b\u200b"economic man". This category underlies the analysis of value, exchange, money, production. Value, according to Smith, is determined not by the labor expended by one particular person, but by the average labor required for a given level of development of the productive forces. D. Ricardo proved that the single criterion for determining the value is the labor expended on the production of goods and measured by the cost of working time. He more clearly distinguished between the use-value of a commodity and its value, and showed that in production the value of a commodity is determined by the labor expended.

1 History of economic doctrines / Ed. V.S. Avtonomova, O.I. Ananyina, N.A. Makashova - M., 2001.

2 History of economic doctrines / Ed. A.G. Khudokormov. - M., 1998.

3 Orekhov, A.M. Methods of economic research / A.M. Orekhov.- M., INFRA-M, 2009.

4 Riccardo, D. Beginnings of political economy and taxation / D. Riccardo // Works: in 3 volumes, M .: Politizdat, 1955.

5 Smith, A. Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples / A. Smith. - M.: Econov, 1991.- T.1, S.36-37.

test questions

1 Describe the main provisions of A. Smith's methodology.

2 Describe A. Smith's research method.

3 Name the merits of D. Ricardo in the development of economic science.

4 Describe the main methodological provisions of classical political economy.

Essay topics

1 Methodology of classical political economy.

2 Research methods of economists of the classical school.

3 Description of the main works of A. Smith.

4 Description of the main works of D. Ricardo.

Classical political economy is an economic doctrine of the late 18th - early 19th centuries, designed to solve the problems of free private enterprise.

The features of classical political economy are:

The doctrine of the labor theory of value, on which the science of "political economy" was based;

The main principle is “laissez faire” (“let things take their own course”), that is, the complete non-interference of the state in economic issues. It is in this case that the "invisible hand" of the market, according to Smith and his followers, will ensure the optimal allocation of resources;

The subject of study is mainly the sphere of production;

The price of a commodity is determined by the costs involved in its production;

A person is considered only as an “economic person”, striving for his own benefit, to improve his position;

The purpose of the entrepreneurial activity of the capitalist is to maximize profits;

Morality, morality, cultural values ​​are not taken into account;

Capital accumulation is the main factor in increasing wealth;

Economic growth is achieved through productive labor in the sphere of material production;

Money is a tool that facilitates the exchange of goods.

W. Petit (England) and P. Boisguillebert (France), A. Smith and D. Riccardo stood at the origins of classical political economy.

At the heart of economic views A. Smith lies the following idea: the products of material production are the wealth of the nation, and the value of the latter depends on:

- from the share of the population engaged in productive labor;

- labor productivity.

The main factor in increasing the level of labor productivity is division of labor or specialization.

The result of the division of labor is:

– saving of working time;

– improvement of work skills;

- the invention of machines that facilitate manual labor.

Money, according to A. Smith, is a special commodity, which is a universal medium of exchange. A. Smith believed that the costs of circulation should be minimal, and therefore preferred paper money.

In the theory of value, the inconsistency of A. Smith's views is clearly expressed. In his work, he gives three approaches to the concept "price":

1) the cost is determined by labor costs;

2) value is determined by the labor purchased, that is, by the amount of labor for which a given commodity can be purchased. This proposition is true for simple commodity production, but not under conditions of capitalist production, since the commodity producer receives more in exchange than he spent on wages;

3) the value is determined by income, that is, the sources of income, to which the scientist attributed wages, profit and rent. This definition is called "Smith's dogma" and formed the basis of the theory of factors of production.

Recognizing that the value of a single commodity, in addition to income, also includes the value of the consumed means of production, Smith, however, argued that their value is created by living labor in other industries, so that in the final analysis the value of the total social product is reduced to the sum of income. Thus, it turns out that the value of the means of production, created by the labor of past years, has disappeared.

Wages are the "product of labour", remuneration for labour. The amount of wages depends on the economic situation in the country, since with increasing wealth, the demand for labor increases.

Profit is a "deduction from the product of labor", the difference between the value of the product produced and the wages of workers.

Ground rent is also a "deduction from the product of labor" which is created by the unpaid labor of workers.

Capital is the portion of the stock on which the capitalist expects to earn a return.

The main factor in the accumulation of capital, according to A. Smith, is thrift. A. Smith introduced the division of capital into fixed and circulating. By fixed capital, he understood capital that does not enter into the process of circulation, and by circulating capital, he understood capital that changes form in the process of production.

The principle of complete non-intervention of the state in the economy of the country is a condition of wealth. State regulation is necessary when there is a threat to the common good.

A. Smith formulated four rules of taxation:

- proportionality - citizens of the state are obliged to pay taxes in proportion to the funds received;

- minimality - each tax should be levied so that it extracts from the population as little as possible in excess of what goes into the state;

- certainty - the time of payment, the method and amount of the tax must be clearly established. This information should be available to any taxpayer;

- Convenience for the payer - the time and method of paying the tax must meet the requirements of payers.

David Ricardo(1772-1823) - an economist of the era of the industrial revolution - was born in the family of a stockbroker in London. Studied at a trading school.

D. Ricardo in "Beginnings" laid the foundation for the model method in the study of economic theory.

The main provisions of the research methodology D. Ricardo:

- the system of political economy is presented as a unity subject to the law of value;

- recognition of objective economic laws, that is, laws that do not depend on the will of man;

- a quantitative approach to economic laws, that is, D. Ricardo made an attempt to find a quantitative relationship between such categories as cost, wages, profit, rent, etc.;

- D. Ricardo sought to identify patterns, excluding random phenomena, that is, he adhered to an abstract method.

D. Ricardo saw the main task of political economy in determining the laws governing the distribution of the product between classes

Marxism

Karl Marx (1818 - 1883) - German economist, philosopher, founder of Marxism - an economic trend that expressed the interests of the working class. Marxism is a kind of development of the classical economic school.

The main work is "Capital". Thanks to the significant financial support of his friend F. Engels, K. Marx published the first volume of Capital in 1867. K. Marx failed to complete the writing of the second and third volumes due to the awareness of the unfinished work. On March 14, 1883, he died. The completion and preparation for printing of the second and third volumes was carried out by F. Engels. The fourth volume was published after the death of F. Engels in 1905.

The methodology of K. Marx originates from the following sources: the classical political economy of A. Smith and D. Ricardo - the labor theory of value, labor productivity, etc.; German classical philosophy - dialectics and materialism; utopian socialism - sociological aspects, the concept of class struggle.

An individual feature of the methodology of K. Marx is the idea base and superstructure : the total production relations of people, the economic structure of society - the basis on which the superstructure is located.

The value of a commodity is based on the magnitude of the socially necessary labor costs expended on its production at an average level of intensity - law of value , formulated by K. Marx.

In his teaching, K. Marx distinguished between use and exchange value. Use value - the ability of the product to satisfy needs. Exchange value The ability of a thing to be exchanged for another commodity.

Surplus value, according to Marx, is the value of the product of the unpaid labor of workers. The introduction of this concept made it possible to show how, without violating the law of value, the worker receives only a part of his wages. Real wages, according to the scientist, never grow in proportion to the increase in the productive power of labor, that is, signs of exploitation appear.

Operating rate- the ratio of surplus value to the amount of variable capital corresponding to the payment of labor power.

Money is a commodity that spontaneously separated from all types of commodities and plays the role of a universal equivalent, an exponent of the value of all commodities. Money, according to K. Marx, is a universal means of payment and purchasing, but they cannot exist in the absence of commodity exchange. K. Marx considered money to be the first form of existence of capital.

Under capital they understood the money that brings surplus value.

Capital in the circuit goes through three stages:

- from the monetary form it passes into the productive one, which is the means of production and labor power;

- at the second stage, production capital participates in the production process, passing into a commodity form;

- through the sale of products, the commodity form of capital is converted into cash.

The stages are changed sequentially.

In the circulation, capital, which simultaneously appears in three forms (monetary, productive and commodity), K. Marx defined as industrial capital .

The essence of the theory of cyclical economic development of capitalism is that the achievement of macroeconomic equilibrium and consistent economic growth is impossible as a result of the existence of economic crises. The reason for the crisis is the lack of automatic growth of effective demand, with the expansion of production. Low wages lead to a lack of workers' ability to buy the marketable products they produce. K. Marx saw the way out of the crisis and ensuring reproduction in additional expenditures on the part of the capitalists and landowners.

Continuing the general characterization of almost two hundred years of the history of classical political economy, it is necessary to single out its common features, approaches and trends in terms of the subject and method of study and give them an appropriate assessment. They can be reduced to the following generalization.

Firstly, the rejection of protectionism in the economic policy of the state and the predominant analysis of the problems of the sphere of production in isolation from the sphere of circulation, the development and application of progressive methodological methods of research, including causal (causal), deductive and inductive, logical abstraction. At the same time, a class-based approach to observable "laws of production" and "productive labor" removed any doubt that the predictions obtained through logical abstraction and deduction should be subjected to experimental verification. As a result, the classical opposition between the spheres of production and circulation, productive and unproductive labor caused an underestimation of the natural interconnection of economic entities in these spheres (“the human factor”), the reverse influence on the sphere of production of monetary, credit and financial factors and other elements of the sphere of circulation.

Thus, taking only the problems of the sphere of production as the subject of study, classical economists, in the words of M. Blaug, “emphasized that the conclusions of economic science are ultimately based on postulates equally drawn from the observed “laws of production” and subjective introspection. " sixteen .

Moreover, when solving practical problems, the classics gave answers to the main questions, posing these questions, as N. Kondratyev put it, “evaluatively”. For this reason, he believes, “... answers were obtained that have the character of evaluative maxims and rules, namely: a system based on freedom of economic activity is the most perfect, freedom of trade is most conducive to the prosperity of the nation, etc.” 17 . This circumstance also did not contribute to the objectivity and consistency of economic analysis and theoretical generalization of the classical school of political economy.

Secondly, based on causal analysis, calculations of average and total values ​​of economic indicators, the classics (unlike the mercantilists) tried to identify the mechanism of the origin of the cost of goods and price fluctuations in the market not due to the “natural nature” of money and their quantity in the country. , but in connection with production costs or, according to another interpretation, the amount of labor expended. Undoubtedly, since the time of classical political economy, there has not been another economic problem in the past, and N. Kondratiev also pointed to this, which would attract “... such close attention of economists, the discussion of which would cause so much mental stress, logical tricks and polemical passions, as a value issue. And at the same time, it seems difficult to indicate another problem, the main directions in the solution of which would remain so irreconcilable, as in the case of the problem of value.

However, the cost principle of determining the level of prices by the classical school was not linked to another important aspect of market economic relations - the consumption of a product (service) with a changing need for a particular good with the addition of a unit of this good to it. Therefore, the opinion of N. Kondratiev, who wrote: “The foregoing digression convinces us that until the second half of the 19th century in social economy there was no conscious and distinct division and distinction between theoretical judgments of value or practical ones, is quite fair. As a rule, authors are convinced that those judgments which are in fact judgments of value are just as scientific and justified as those which are theoretical judgments. A few decades later (1962), von Mises made a similar point. “Public opinion,” he writes, “is still under the impression of the scientific attempt of the representatives of classical economic theory to cope with the problem of value. Not being able to resolve the obvious paradox of pricing, the classics could not trace the sequence of market transactions up to the final consumer, but were forced to start their constructions from the actions of a businessman for whom consumer utility estimates are given.

Thirdly, the category of "value" was recognized by the authors of the classical school as the only initial category of economic analysis, from which, as in the diagram of a genealogical tree, other derivatives of the category 21 in their essence bud (grow). In addition, this kind of simplification of analysis and systematization led the classical school to the fact that economic research itself, as it were, imitated the mechanical adherence to the laws of physics, i.e. search for purely internal causes of economic well-being in society without taking into account psychological, moral, legal and other factors of the social environment.

These shortcomings, referring to M. Blaug, could partly be explained by the impossibility of a completely controlled experiment in the social sciences, as a result of which “economists, in order to reject any theory, need much more facts than, say, physicists” 22 . M. Blaug himself, however, clarifies: “If the conclusions from the theorems of economic theory could be unambiguously verified, no one would ever hear about the unrealistic assumptions. But the theorems of economic theory cannot be unambiguously verified, since all predictions here are probabilistic in nature” 23 . And yet, if condescension is not to be avoided, then one can agree with L. Mises that “many epigones of classical economists saw the task of economic science in studying events that do not actually occur, but only those forces that, in some, not quite understandable way, predetermined the emergence of real phenomena” 24 .

Fourthly, when studying the problems of economic growth and improving the welfare of the people, the classics did not simply proceed (again, unlike the mercantilists) from the principle of achieving an active trade balance (surplus), but tried to justify the dynamism and equilibrium of the state of the country's economy. However, at the same time, as is known, they did without serious mathematical analysis, the use of methods of mathematical modeling of economic problems, which make it possible to choose the best (alternative) option from a certain number of states of the economic situation. Moreover, the classical school considered the achievement of equilibrium in the economy to be automatically possible, sharing the “law of markets” mentioned above by J. B. Say.

Finally, fifthly, money, which has long and traditionally been considered an artificial invention of people, during the period of classical political economy was recognized as a commodity spontaneously released in the world of commodities, which cannot be “cancelled” by any agreements between people. Among the classics, the only one who demanded the abolition of money was P. Boisguillebert. At the same time, many authors of the classical school up to the middle of the XIX century. they did not attach due importance to the various functions of money, highlighting mainly one - the function of the medium of circulation, i.e. interpreting the monetary commodity as a thing, as a technical means convenient for exchange. The underestimation of other functions of money was due to a misunderstanding of the reverse impact of monetary factors on the sphere of production.

Questions and tasks for control

1. What are the socio-economic prerequisites for the emergence of classical political economy? Describe the opposite essence and orientation of the principles of protectionism and laissezfaire.

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the subject of study and methodology of economic analysis of classical political economy compared to mercantilism? Explain why it is impossible to consider the source of national wealth either in the sphere of circulation or in the sphere of production.

3. Highlight the criteria for periodization of the stages of evolution of the "classical school". Give the arguments of K. Marx about the time of completion of "bourgeois classical political economy".

4. What is the essence of the common features of classical political economy? Why did the "classics" underestimate the principle "money matters" in the creation of national wealth and proceeded from the principle of self-organization and automatic equilibrium of the economy?

5. Explain the inconsistency of the costly principle of determining the cost of goods and services by the "classics" according to labor theory or the theory of production costs.

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Galbraith J.K. Economic theories and goals of society. Moscow: Progress, 1979.

Gide Sh., Rist III. History of Economic Thought. M.: Economics, 1995.

Kondratiev N.D. Fav. op. M.: Economics, 1993.

Leontiev V.V. Economic Essays. Moscow: Politizdat, 1990.

Marx K., Engels F. Op. 2nd ed. T. 23.

Mises L. background. About some common misconceptions about the subject of economic science //THESIS. 1994. Vol. II. Issue. 4.

Samuelson P. Economics: In 2 vols. M .: NPO Algon, 1992.

Seligman Ben B. Main currents of modern economic thought. Moscow: Progress, 1968.

Schumpeter J. Theory of economic development. Moscow: Progress, 1982.

Lecture 5. The first stage in the evolution of classical political economy

This topic will introduce you to:

That U. Petty and P. Boisguillebert are the founders of the labor (cost) theory of the cost of goods and services;

That with the advent of the teachings of the physiocrats, the “classics”, moving further, “fell into a rut of static representation” (I. Schumpeter), but at the same time they designated “already a system of theoretical economic views” (N. Kondratiev);

How did the physiocrats “provide an analysis of capital within the limits of the bourgeois outlook” and became “the real fathers of modern political economy” (K. Marx);

What meaning did the ideologists of physiocracy invest in the concept of “pure product” introduced by them;

What were the first variants of the division of society into classes proposed by the physiocrats;

What was the first analytical concept of the circulation of economic life in the theory of reproduction put forward by F. Quesnay.