6. Biochemical transformations of proteinogenic a-amino acids: a) transamination; b) deamination.

7. The concept of the isoelectric point of a-amino acids and proteins.

8. Primary structure of proteins: definition, peptide group, type of chemical bond.

9. Secondary structure of proteins: definition, main types

10.Tertiary and quaternary structures of proteins: definition, types of bonds involved in their formation.

11.Structure of the polypeptide chain of protein peptides. Give examples.

12.Structural formula of the tripeptide alanylseryltyrosine.

13.Structural formula of cysteylglycinephenylalanine tripeptide.

14.Classification of proteins according to: a) chemical structure; b) spatial structure.

15. Physico-chemical properties of proteins: a) amphoteric; b) solubility; c) electrochemical; d) denaturation; e) precipitation reaction.

16.Carbohydrates: general characteristics, biological role, classification. Proof of the structure of monosaccharides using the example of glucose and fructose.

Classification of carbohydrates

17. Reactions of oxidation and reduction of monosaccharides using the example of glucose and fructose.

18. Glycosides: general characteristics, formation.

Classification of glycosides

19. Fermentation of mono- and disaccharides (alcoholic, lactic acid, butyric acid, propionic acid).

20. Reducing disaccharides (maltose, lactose): structure, biochemical transformations (oxidation, reduction).

21. Non-reducing disaccharides (sucrose): structure, inversion, application.

22.Polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, glycogen): structure, distinctive biological functions.

23. Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA): biological role, general characteristics, hydrolysis.

24.Structural components of nc: main purine and pyrimidine bases, carbohydrate component.

Nitrogen base Carbohydrate component Phosphoric acid

Purine Pyrimidine Ribose Deoxyribose

26. Structure of a polynucleotide chain (primary structure), for example, build the Ade-Thy-Guo fragment; Cyt-Guo-Thy.

27. Secondary structure of DNA. Chartgoff's rules The secondary structure of DNA is characterized by the rule e. Chargaff (regularity of the quantitative content of nitrogenous bases):

28. The main functions of tRNA, mRNA, rRNA. Structure and functions of RNA.

Replication stages:

Transcription

Transcription stages:

29. Lipids (saponifiable, unsaponifiable): general characteristics, classification.

Classification of lipids.

30.Structural components of saponified lipids (HFA, Alcohols).

31. Neutral fats, oils: general characteristics, oxidation, hydrogenation.

32.Phospholipids: general characteristics, representatives (phosphatidylethanolamines, phosphatidylcholines, phosphatidylserines, phosphatidylglycerols).

33.Enzymes: definition, chemical nature and structure.

34. General properties of chemical enzymes and biocatalysts.

35. Factors affecting the catalytic activity of enzymes:

36.Mechanism of action of enzymes.

37. Nomenclature, classification of enzymes.

38. General characteristics of individual classes of enzymes: a) oxidoreductases; b) transferases; c) hydrolases.

39. General characteristics of enzyme classes: a) lyases; b) isomerases; c) l and gases.

40. General characteristics of vitamins, classification of vitamins; representatives of water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins. Their biological role.

1) By solubility:

2) By physiological activity:

41. The concept of metabolic processes: catabolic and anabolic reactions.

42.Features of metabolic processes.

32.Phospholipids: general characteristics, representatives (phosphatidylethanolamines, phosphatidylcholines, phosphatidylserines, phosphatidylglycerols).

A common feature of all phospholipids is the presence of phosphoric acid in their composition. Depending on the alcohol component they are divided into phosfoglycerides And sphingophospholipids.

Phosfoglycerides

The common structural moiety of all phosphoglycerides is phosphatidic acid (1,2-diacyl,3-phosphoglycerol).

Phosphatidic acid is formed in the body during the biosynthesis of triacylgly and nerols and phosphoglycerides as a common intermediate metabolite; in tissues it is present in small quantities. It should be noted that all natural phosphoglycerides belong to the L-series. Various phosphoglycerides differ from each other by additional groups attached by a phosphoester bond to phosphatidic acid, i.e. R3. The composition of fatty acids of various phosphoglycerides varies even within the same organism and, along with substituting groups, determines the specificity of phospholipids:

Phosphatidylcholine (lecithin). It contains the amino alcohol ho-line (3-hydroxyethyltrimethylammonium hydroxide):

Phosphatidylethanolamine (kephalin). Instead of choline, phosphatidylethanolamines contain the nitrogenous base ethanolamine HO-CH 2 -CH 2 -NH 3 .

In the body of animals and in higher plants, phosphatidylcholines and phosphatidylethanolamines are found in the greatest quantities. These two groups of glycerophospholipids are the main lipid components of cell membranes.

Phosphatidylinositols Unlike other groups of phosphoglycerides, instead of nitrogen-containing compounds, phosphatidylinositols contain the 6-carbon cyclic alcohol inositol, represented by one of its stereoisomers, monositol.

In a molecule phosphatidylserine A polar group is a serine amino acid residue:

Phosphatidylglycerols. Like phosphatidylinositols, phosphatidylglycerols do not contain a nitrogen-containing compound. In these compounds, the polar group is another glycerol molecule.

33.Enzymes: definition, chemical nature and structure.

Enzymes (enzymes) are biological catalysts with the help of which the entire set of biochemical transformations is carried out. Catalytic activity underlies the life activity of biological factors.

Chemical structure and nature of enzymes.

All enzymes are globular proteins. Proteins with 1st, 2nd and 3rd structure. Non-polar bonds: ionic, hydrophobic and hydrogen

Based on their structure, enzymes are divided into simple (single-component) and complex (two-component). A simple enzyme consists of only a protein part; The complex enzyme includes protein and non-protein components. Otherwise, the complex enzyme is called holoenzyme. The protein part in its composition is called apoenzyme, and non-protein - coenzyme. The chemical nature of coenzymes was clarified in the 30s. The role of some coenzymes is played by vitamins or substances built with the participation of vitamins B, B2, B5, B6, B12, H, Q, etc. A feature of complex enzymes is that the apoenzyme and coenzyme separately do not have catalytic activity.

In both simple and complex enzymes, substrate, allosteric and catalytic centers are distinguished.

Catalytic center A simple enzyme is a unique combination of several amino acid residues located in different parts of the polypeptide chain. The formation of the catalytic center occurs simultaneously with the formation of the tertiary structure of the protein molecule of the enzyme. Most often, the catalytic center of a simple enzyme includes residues of serine, cysteine, tyrosine, histidine, arginine, aspartic and glutamic acids.

Substrate center a simple enzyme is a section of the enzyme protein molecule that is responsible for binding the substrate. The substrate center is figuratively called the “anchor site”, where the substrate is attached to the enzyme due to various interactions between certain side radicals of amino acid residues and the corresponding groups of the substrate molecule. The substrate binds to the enzyme through ionic interactions, hydrogen bonds; sometimes the substrate and enzyme are bonded covalently. Hydrophobic interactions also play a role in the binding of substrate to enzyme. In simple enzymes, the substrate center may coincide with the catalytic one; then they talk about active center enzyme. Thus, the active center of amylase, an enzyme that hydrolyzes -1,4-glycosidic bonds in the starch molecule - represented by histidine, aspartic acid and tyrosine residues; acetylcholinesterase, which hydrolyzes ester bonds in the acetylcholine molecule with histidine, serine, tyrosine and glutamic acid residues. Arginine, tyrosine and glutamic acid residues are localized in the active center of carboxypeptidase A, which hydrolyzes certain peptide bonds in the protein molecule.

Allosteric center is a section of an enzyme molecule, as a result of the addition of some low-molecular substance to which the tertiary structure of the protein molecule of the enzyme changes, which entails a change in its activity. The allosteric center is the regulatory center of the enzyme. In complex enzymes, the role of the catalytic center is played by a coenzyme that binds to the apoenzyme in a certain area - coenzyme binding domain. The concepts of substrate and allosteric centers for a complex enzyme and for a simple one are similar.

Main functions of cofactors.

Enzymes are divided into one-component and two-component, which in turn consist of an apoenzyme protein and a cofactor [protein K], they are connected by weak interaction forces. Cofactors: vitamins (E, K), monosaccharides and their derivatives, nucleotides and their derivatives, metals (Mg , Mn ,Co , Fe). A distinctive feature of two-component enzymes is that neither the cofactor nor the apoenzyme individually has catalytic activity, but only their complex, built with their structural organization, has catalytic activity.

Functions of cofactors:

Phospholipids include 1) phosphatidic acid and phosphatidylglycerols, 2) phosphatidylcholine, 3) phosphatidylethanolamine, 4) phosphatidylinositol, 5) phosphatidylserine, 6) lysophospholipids, 7) plasmalogens and 8) sphingomyelins.

Phosphatidic acid and phosphatidylglycerols

Phosphatidic acid is an important intermediate in the synthesis of triacylglycerols and phospholipids, but is found in tissues in small quantities (Fig. 15.10).

Rice. 15.10. Phosphatidic acid.

Cardnolipid is a phospholipid found in mitochondrial membranes. It is formed from phosphatidylglycerol (Fig. 15.11).

Rice. 15.11. Diphosphatidylglycerol (cardiolipin).

Phosphatidylcholine (lecithin)

Lecithins, like simple fats, contain glycerol and fatty acids, but they also contain phosphoric acid and choline. Lecithins are widely present in cells of various tissues; they perform both metabolic and structural functions in membranes. Dipalmitillecithin is a very effective surfactant that reduces surface tension and thereby prevents the internal surfaces of the airways in the lungs from sticking together. Its absence in the lungs of premature newborns leads to the development of respiratory failure syndrome. Most phospholipids contain a saturated acyl radical at the C position and an unsaturated radical at the C position (Fig. 15.12).

Rice. 15.12. 3-Phosphagidylcholine

Phosphatidylethanolamine (kephalin)

Cephalins differ from lecithins only in that they replace choline with ethanolamine (Fig. 15.13).

Rice. 15.13. 3-Phosphatidylethanolamine.

Phosphatidylinositol

Inositol in this compound is represented by one of the stereoisomers - myoinositol (Fig. 15.14). Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate is an important component of phospholipids that make up cell membranes; when stimulated by the appropriate hormone, it is broken down into diacylglycerol and inositol triphosphate - both of these compounds

Rice. 15.14. 3-Phosphatidylinositol.

act as intracellular, or second messengers.

Phosphatidylserine

The tissues also contain a phospholipid related to cephalin, which contains a serine residue instead of ethanolamine (Fig. 15.15). In addition, phospholipids containing a threonine residue were isolated.

Rice. 15.15. 3-Phosphatidylserine.

Lysophospholipids

This group of compounds is formed by phosphoacylglycerols containing only one acyl radical. An example is lysolecithin, which plays an important role in phospholipid metabolism (Fig. 15.16).

Rice. 15.16. Lysolecithin.

Plasmalogens

These compounds account for up to 10% of phospholipids in the brain and muscle tissue. Structurally, they are related to phosphatidylethanolamine, but at the C atom they have an ether bond rather than an ester bond. most other acylglycerols. The alkyl radical in plasmalogens is usually an unsaturated alcohol (Fig. 15.17).

In some cases, ethanolamine will be mixed with choline, serine or inositol.

Rice. 15.17. Plasmalogen (phosphatidal ethanolamine).

Sphingomyelins

Sphingomyelins are found in large quantities in nervous tissue. The hydrolysis of sphingomyelins produces fatty acid, phosphoric acid, choline and the complex amino alcohol sphingosine (Fig. 15.18). There is no glycerol in these compounds. The compound of sphingosine with a fatty acid is called ceramide, it is found in glycolipids (see below).

Rice. 15.18. Sphintomyelin.

Hello to all sports people! In this article we will talk about a popular supplement that I personally use all the time. This is lecithin. In the fitness industry, this substance is being talked about more and more often lately. Even professional athletes include it in their diet, for example, when preparing for competitions.

Today we will look at what this dietary supplement lethicin is, instructions for use of which will be written below in my article. Let’s not pull the cat by the tail and, as usual, get straight to the point.

Lecithin– ester of choline (vitamin B4) and fatty acids. It is also a common member of phospholipids in the body. It is the main element of cell membranes. Thus, the substance serves as a building material for all cell membranes. The second name of the element is Phosphatidylcholine.

It nourishes the entire nervous system, ensuring optimal phospholipid metabolism. Indispensable for brain function - a lack of the substance can lead to disturbances in brain activity. For me personally, this is unacceptable, since I am in constant brainstorming. I think, read, study a lot. And to be honest, I started using lecithin precisely for the sake of supporting the brain, and not for athletic success.

I take a supplement American company NOW-FOODS, excellent sunflower lecithin:

The substance lowers cholesterol levels by breaking it down into small particles, thereby preventing the appearance of cholesterol plaques on the walls of blood vessels. It also promotes the absorption of certain vitamins. Lecithin helps restore energy to the body, so its deficiency is often observed during rigorous training.

A deficiency of this phospholipid in the body disrupts many functions: the nervous system suffers, the cardiovascular system malfunctions, liver function deteriorates, and hormonal levels may become disrupted. People age faster and get sick a lot. The worst thing is that no medications or vitamins can help the patient until the level of beneficial phospholipid is restored.

Who needs phosphatidylcholine?

Every person needs this substance throughout their life. And that's why:

1. The formation of organs in the unborn in the womb depends on a sufficient amount of this phospholipid in the mother's body.
2. The baby receives the substance from the mother's milk for the normal development of both cognitive and motor functions.
3. In preschool age, it develops a child’s intellect, improves his ability to concentrate and assimilate information.
4. During puberty, phosphatidylcholine prevents underdevelopment of the organs of the reproductive system and prevents dysfunction of the testes and ovaries.
5. The elderly especially need the element - the function of assimilation of nutrients worsens with age. A deficiency of the element leads to Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, and Parkinson's disease.

Where is it kept?

In nature, lecithin is present in almost every living organism and liquid. A large amount of phosphatidylcholine is found in the brain, sperm, caviar, and organs of animals.

"Lekythos" means "egg yolks" in ancient Greek. True, most of this substance can be found in eggs (3715 mg per 100 grams of product). It is also found in the following foods:

• Soy (1550 mg per 100 grams of product);
• Sunflower oil (730-1400 mg);
• Liver (857 mg);
• Rice (111 mg);
• Brewer's yeast (505 mg);
• Fish (901 mg).

Why is it better to take dietary supplements?

A reasonable question arises: why not add more lecithin-rich foods to your diet, and why buy special preparations?

Due to the fact that heavy cholesterol predominates in foods, doctors recommend introducing lecithin into your diet through dietary supplements. This dietary supplement will not contain fats that are harmful to health. The supplement will dissolve most of the cholesterol coming from food.

Exactly the same principle with taking regular protein. In principle, we can do without it, but then we will be forced to eat a lot of food, which, in addition to protein, will contain extra calories, fats, and carbohydrates. To avoid this, we use concentrate.

To make the drug, lecithin is produced from vegetable oils: sunflower and soybean. Many studies have found that plant phospholipid is absorbed better, normalizing the digestion process, unlike animal phospholipids. In the food industry, the substance is used as an emulsifier. And soy lecithin is quite common in the use of cosmetic products as part of nourishing and moisturizing products.

And now we can consider in more detail the benefits and harms of taking lecithin.

Benefit

We can talk about the benefits of dietary supplements for a very long time. For convenience, I have highlighted the main and most important aspects for you.

STABILIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. We can say that it works due to lecithin. In addition, it itself consists of 17% of this substance. The top layer of nerve fibers consists of this phospholipid. And its lack can lead to irritability, fatigue and even a nervous breakdown.

If the membrane is depleted, the nerves conduct nerve impulses worse, and then die altogether. Therefore, in old age it is especially important to provide the body with sufficient amounts of lethicin.

STRENGTHENING MEMORY. Research by Massachusetts Institute of Technology psychiatrist Cott Allen showed that 15 grams (2 tablespoons) of lecithin per day improved subjects' memory by 12%.

Strengthening memory is promoted by acetylcholine, an organic compound that is responsible for memory, human intellectual capabilities and concentration. This compound appears during the synthesis of vitamin B5 with lecithin.

Many scientists are of the opinion that when treating brain dysfunction, taking phospholipid as a dietary supplement does not cause any side effects.

The drug is prescribed to children for the development of memory and sustained attention. Taking the supplement will help the child quickly concentrate on new information and simplify the process of assimilating it.

CONCENTRATION OF ATTENTION. New York psychiatrist Cott Allen prescribes the supplement for children with learning disabilities, autism and schizophrenia. The drug has a positive effect on improving attention in the tested children. According to the advice of doctors, the daily norm for a child is from 1 to 4 grams.

REDUCING CHOLESTEROL. It is known that consuming lecithin lowers cholesterol levels. The director of a research hospital in Los Angeles, Lester Morrison, first came to such conclusions in 1958.

In his scientific work, he writes that in 80% of patients who suffered from high cholesterol levels and took a drug with phospholipid for several weeks, their cholesterol dropped by 16%.

It also helps bile salts remove cholesterol from the body. The drug prevents the formation of gallstones and helps in dissolving fatty deposits that have already appeared in the ducts and on the walls of the bladder.

David Druling, a doctor at Mount Sinai Medical Institute in New York, found that patients with complaints of gallstones experienced fewer attacks after taking 14 grams of phospholipid.

Also, the breakdown of cholesterol into individual lipids prevents the formation of plaques on blood vessels, which is the main cause of the development of atherosclerosis.

The dietary supplement promotes the breakdown of fats and improves the absorption of vitamins E, K, A. Thus, beneficial substances are more easily absorbed by the body.

SYNTHESIS OF L-CARNITINE. Bodybuilders know what it is. It is an important amino acid responsible for renewing the energy of muscle tissue. Lecithin is also actively involved in its synthesis. This amino acid also makes muscles more flexible and increases their size. L-carnitine is also vital for the main muscle – the heart. It also prevents heart attack.

RESTORATION OF LIVER TISSUE. One of the main functions of the drug is to protect and restore liver cells. Phospholipids are able to dissolve and remove excess fat from the organ. They also do an excellent job of removing toxins, clearing the blood of harmful substances.

Doctors prescribe the drug for any liver diseases: intoxication, cirrhosis, hepatitis, obesity, etc. The drug helps in stimulating the production of bile, activates the renewal of liver cells, but also reduces unwanted hangover symptoms due to alcohol intoxication.

This is another reason why I consume lecithin. As a child, I suffered from hepatitis A (Botkin’s disease) or, as it is also popularly called, “jaundice.” Therefore, for a long time the liver was my weak point. Sometimes you eat something fried and you immediately feel discomfort in your side. But for several years now I have completely forgotten about the problems with this.

PREVENTION OF DIABETES. The supplement prevents the development of diabetes, allows healthy people to consume more carbohydrates, and patients can reduce their insulin intake. Scientists from Texas discovered this pattern.

Taking the drug regulates the functioning of the reproductive systems. A sufficient level of the substance in the body prevents the occurrence of malignant tumors and cancer.

NORMALIZATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE. In addition to all its functions, the dietary supplement also helps to saturate the blood with oxygen, thus ensuring normal lung function.

In an American journal called "Health," Professor Narthoff stated that phospholipid deficiency causes high blood pressure in newborns. Therefore, the doctor advises feeding babies with mother’s breast milk, which, unlike cow’s milk, contains lecithin.

Or here's another benefit. The amino acid acetylcholine weakens nicotine addiction and fights bad habit, since it cannot interact with nicotine in the body.

When losing weight

Lecithin is also used for weight loss. It helps normalize weight and produce energy. By normalizing the activity of body systems, the drug improves. Nutritionists note that the drug helps get rid of stress, thereby preventing overeating and gaining additional pounds due to nervousness.

It is also used for high-quality digestion of food, so the supplement is often prescribed during diet therapy. In addition to the drug, of course, the patient is also prescribed moderate physical activity. However, lecithin acts as a good supplement during weight loss.

According to some nutritionists and cosmetologists, the drug can also help reduce cellulite in problem areas. It makes the skin elastic and tightens it.

Harmful properties

Benefits and harms to the body can indeed be observed when lecithin is added to the diet of some people. They mainly talk about the negative properties of the substance when mentioning the problem of genetically modified products.

Most often, phospholipid is produced from soybeans, which are grown in Asia, since it grows quickly there and bears fruit well. It also enters the CIS markets, however, for example, in Russia some soy products are prohibited by law. Therefore, we do not undertake to judge the quality and naturalness of the product.

Researchers and scientists at the University of Hawaii, after a series of experiments, concluded that systematically consuming genetically modified soy lecithin, amino acids are no longer fully absorbed. Therefore, there is a decrease in the level of human intellectual capabilities and memory deterioration is provoked. At the end of 1959, it was established that the substance from soy negatively affects the thyroid gland.

Thus, we can talk about the dangers of lecithin only if the substance is used in a genetically modified product. Experts do not advise introducing products with lecithin brought directly from eastern countries into your diet. Check product labels for certifications and standards.

Admission instructions

Supplements containing lecithin are available in different forms:

• capsules;
• gel;
• powders;
• pills;
• liquid.

Liquid lecithin is mixed with food. The more popular form remains the granulated dietary supplement.

One of the most popular dietary supplements on the market is called “Our Lecithin”. It is sold in capsules of 30, 90 or 150 pieces, as well as in powder form of 120 grams. How to use Our Lecithin? Doses for adults and children:

• Adults – daily dose from 350 to 700 ml, three times a day with meals.
• Children under 12 years of age are prescribed from 100 to 400 ml.

The course of taking the drug is designed for at least three months. However, its duration may vary depending on the doctor's recommendations. You can buy HERE.

Contraindications to the use of the product:

• Individual intolerance to the substance;
• Pregnant and breastfeeding mothers are advised to consult a doctor before using dietary supplements.

Side effects are rare, but possible:

• Dizziness;
• Allergic reaction;
• Nausea.

While taking the product, you should add foods with C-vitamin and calcium to your food to neutralize the harmful products of lecithin metabolism.

Which to choose?

Dietary supplements can be purchased from both soybean and sunflower oil. Which lecithin is better to choose?

SOY LECITHIN. Soy supplement is made by treating oils at low temperatures. The drug contains oils, E and A vitamins, phospholipids and isoflavones; their composition is similar to female hormones - estrogens. Particular attention should be paid to this fact for women who are carrying a child.

Isoflavones have a negative effect on the fetal brain, but in small doses they have a beneficial effect on the female reproductive system. Therefore, when taking soy dietary supplements, you should very carefully monitor the dosage of the drug.

SUNFLOWER LECITHIN. It is obtained through extracts from sunflower oil. The fatty acid content in it is higher than that of soybean. This supplement is hypoallergenic and is suitable for patients who suffer from food allergies.

There are different types of dietary supplements. Among them, the following analogues of the drug are also popular:

• Lecithin can be replaced with choline (vitamin B4). It also has a beneficial effect on all systems of the human body, on the functioning of the liver, cardiovascular and nervous systems;
• Folic acid (vitamin B9) – improves intellectual abilities, normalizes the functioning of the nervous system, activates memory and improves attention.

The dietary supplement can be purchased in pharmacies and also specialized stores for bodybuilders. The price of dietary supplements may vary depending on the manufacturer. On average, the supplement can be purchased from 160 to 2000 rubles, depending on the size of the package or jar.

What are others saying?

On pharmaceutical forums and websites dedicated to this dietary supplement, users of the supplement leave mostly positive reviews. According to diabetic patients, lecithin actually produces the right amount of insulin and adds strength and energy.

Parents praise the drug, saying that children have become more attentive and diligent. And those involved in sports focus on the fact that after a course of taking the drug after strength training, they feel less tired and regain their strength faster.

However, many doubt the quality of the drugs. Since we are not sure what kind of soybean the dietary supplement was made from. They are afraid that pharmaceutical companies often use genetically modified products.

The article has come to an end - I hope it was useful to you and you now have a full understanding of lecithin as a substance. If you have any questions, write them in the comments. Bye bye!

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Phosphatidylcholine helps to quickly reduce the layer of fat in problem areas. Injections of lipolytics included in the drug accelerate the breakdown of fat cells. The procedure itself does not take much time and guarantees an excellent result. Phosphatidylcholine is easily tolerated and does not require a course of rehabilitation, so immediately after use you can go about your business. What makes this drug unique? What are its main operating functions? Are there any contraindications? All about this in our article.

What are the causes of the appearance of fat folds

While the body is young, it actively fights fat deposits. But over time, metabolism begins to slow down. The reason for this is hormonal imbalances, such as pregnancy or severe long-term illness. The body can no longer process proteins received in excess. Of course, a beautiful and slender figure without cellulite and orange peel is an achievable desire. You just need to put in a lot of effort to maintain an ideal figure. There are many reasons for fat deposition. Here are the main ones:

• Inactive lifestyle, such as sedentary work.
• Metabolic failure due to a number of external and internal factors.
• Unhealthy diet, constant fast food snacking, especially for office workers.
• Fluid deficiency in the body, often caused by drinking carbonated and sweet drinks.

Due to the constant supply of fats, the body cannot cope with them and they begin to accumulate, being deposited in places such as:

• Inner thighs,
• Abdomen area,
• Cheeks,
• Inner part of the arms.

These areas are problematic because it is incredibly difficult to remove fat accumulations if you use well-known methods for this:

• • Active sports with a special set of exercises.
  • Proper nutrition calculating the intake of proteins, fats and carbohydrates.
  • Additional manipulations such as massage or swimming pool.

Junk food lovers especially suffer from obesity. Therefore, the popularity of using Phosphatidylcholine is increasing. After all, it is much easier to take several injections of the drug, endure the unpleasant sensations and continue to enjoy life with a beautiful figure. To avoid health problems, you need to lead a healthy lifestyle, eat right and exercise actively. Phosphatidylcholine helps to even out the skin texture in one course up to 10 cm. Injections are often used to correct imperfections after liposuction.

The effect of the drug phosphatidylcholine and its composition

The effectiveness of the drug is confirmed by many patients who have used this product for figure correction. The lipolytic phosphatidylcholine is able to dissolve local fat accumulations. But the drug affects only specific fat cells, destroying their structure. The reason for this is the special composition of the drug, which is not capable of harming adipocytes.

In order to better penetrate the dense membrane of adipocytes, deoxycholate is added to the drug; this component has a bile structure, and therefore normally disrupts the structure of the membrane. The synthesis of phosphatidylcholine and deoxycholic acid in a ratio of 5% - 2.4% allows the fat cell membrane to be dissolved to a water-oil state.

Attention! Phosphatidylcholine deoxycholate does not affect overall body weight, but only corrects problematic fat areas, smoothing the skin and binding fat cells for their safe removal from the body.

This helps minimize the impact of the injection and reduce the harmful effects on the body. The drug itself is made on the basis of natural ingredients, therefore it reduces side effects.

How is Phosphatidylcholine injection given?

Phosphatidylcholine is injected under the skin to a depth of 1 centimeter, but not more than 4 cm, it all depends on the area of ​​​​needed correction. If the drug is injected less than 1 cm, its effect will be destructive not only to fat cells, but also to skin tissue.

Despite the fact that the procedure itself consists of injections administered to the patient, it does not cause pain. And the reason for this is not the effect of anesthetics, but the low sensitivity of the fatty area. So it is easily tolerated by patients. Usually, several courses are carried out for complete correction, much depends on the specific case. One course includes:

• 3-4 injection sessions,
• Or 8-10 injections.

This depends on the area of ​​correction, so the chin area requires fewer injections than the abdominal area. Between courses it is necessary to take a break of 10-15 days to give the liver time to remove the converted fat cells. Upon completion of the procedures, the cosmetologist gives several recommendations.

For example, performing a massage at home, this helps the drug not to stagnate in certain areas, but to be evenly distributed over the problem area. The use of injection correction Phosphatidylcholine should be used only if other corrective procedures such as exercise, diet, etc. are useless. Therefore, the main areas are: chin, abdomen, buttocks. But patients should remember that even after the injection it is important to follow a special diet so that all efforts are not in vain. Constantly maintaining shape requires effort, including uniform and regular physical activity.

Carefully! During the procedure, it is important to follow safety precautions, otherwise complications may occur. Therefore, contact only trusted specialists. Remember health is more valuable than money.

The distance between injections should be a couple of centimeters. Before starting the procedure, the cosmetologist must indicate the problem area to be treated with a special marker. You cannot use more than 0.5 ml of the drug in 1 session. It happens that the patient needs to undergo up to 15 courses, of course, with the necessary intervals to remove decomposed fat. The exact number of courses can only be determined after diagnosis. Improvements can be assessed after the first procedure.

Main contraindications to injections

You can resort to injection fat removal in problem areas only after there are no possible contraindications:

• Intolerance to the composition of the injections.
• The presence of serious disorders in the biliary tract, such as cholelithiasis.
• Liver pathologies.
• Diabetes.
• The period of pregnancy and breastfeeding.
• Kidney pathology.
• The presence of various infectious diseases.
• Presence of sexually transmitted diseases.
• Internal inflammation.
• An allergic reaction to soy, since its components form the basis of the composition of the drug.
• The presence of various cuts and wounds at the injection site.
• Damage to connective tissue systems.
• Also, injections are not administered in the area of ​​moles and other benign formations on the patient’s skin.

The presence of at least one of the listed points immediately excludes the possibility of using phosphatidylcholine injections.

Positive and negative aspects of use

The biggest problem with the use of the drug Phosphatidylcholine is the inability to influence significant fat deposits. Therefore, the greatest effect can only be achieved with an integrated approach to getting rid of excess fat in problem areas. The complex may include the following methods:

• Use of ultrasonic liposuction.
• Maintain a strict diet throughout the procedure and even after it.
• Massage.

But, despite this fact, the popularity of the procedure is growing. Here are the main advantages of injections:

• You can correct your figure, especially in cases where surgical intervention is excluded due to a number of contraindications.
• The phosphatidylcholine contained in the ampoules is identical to the organic phosphatidylcholine present in the cells of our body, so the risk of complications is minimal. This also eliminates a possible allergic reaction.
• Injections can be used for any problem areas on the body. Especially for those where conventional correction means are useless.

Possible complications after the drug injection procedure

But, like any drug, complications can arise here too. Therefore, the doctor must warn the patient in advance that after the procedure on the treated area:

• Swelling may appear
• It is possible to develop hyperemia in the treated area,
• The appearance of bruises due to damage to blood vessels.

Education data indicates that the procedure was carried out correctly without violating safety regulations. But if the basic rules of the operation are violated, most often due to the incompetence of the doctor, complications may begin:

• Tissue necrosis.
• Severe internal inflammation.

Complications can be caused by:

• Failure to comply with sanitary standards when performing injections.
• If the injections were administered too deeply or, on the contrary, superficially.
• If balls begin to form on the skin, this indicates encapsulation of the drug. But we can eliminate this defect with the help of vacuum massage.

Cost of the procedure

The cost of the procedure, or rather one session of phosphatidylcholine injections, ranges from 1500 to 2500 rubles, much depends on the specific clinic. Where will the procedure be performed? But as already mentioned, to obtain a good result, 6-8 procedures are required, it depends on the complexity of the particular case. The cosmetologist will give you specific recommendations after consultation.

Conclusion

Body correction is possible in various ways. Thanks to the development of cosmetology as a medical field, all defects can be removed. But it is not always possible to use injections for correction and the main reason for this is the presence of contraindications. The best thing to do is to take care of your body and avoid serious violations.

Phospholipids (phosphoglycerides) are complex lipids derived from phosphatidic acid. Lipids play a major role in the formation of cell membranes. The main part of lipids in membranes is represented by phospholipids, glycolipids and cholesterol.

There are two types of phospholipids in membranes - glycerophospholipids and sphingophospholipids. (not considered in this material). Glycerophospholipids include glycerol, fatty acids, phosphoric acid, and usually nitrogen-containing compounds.

The general formula for phospholipids is represented by the figure “Phosphoglyceride”: where R1 and R2 are radicals of higher fatty acids (saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, respectively), R3 is a radical of a nitrogenous base connected through a phosphate hydroxyl by an ester bond to a phosphatidic acid derivative.

A characteristic feature of all phospholipids is that one part of their molecule (radicals R1 and R2) exhibits pronounced hydrophobicity, while the other part is hydrophilic due to the negative charge of the phosphoric acid residue and the positive charge of the R3 radical.

Of all lipids, phospholipids have the most pronounced polar properties. When phospholipids are placed in water, only a small part of them passes into the true solution, while the bulk of the “dissolved” lipid is found in aqueous systems in the form of micelles. Other configurations of phospholipid molecules are bilayer (a typical state for biomembrane phospholipids) and hexagonal. The configuration of a phospholipid molecule depends on the internal properties of the molecule itself (its structure) and on external factors (hydration, temperature, pH, ionic strength of the solution).

The molecule represented by the figure “Phosphoglyceride” is considered as the basis for all complex lipids, the name of which depends on the nitrogenous base (choline, ethanolamine, serine - marked in red), a six-carbon sugar alcohol - inositol, or represented by glycerol residues - cardiolipin. Polar groups, among other things, make it possible to divide phospholipids into classes.

There are several classes of phospholipids:

• "neutral" phospholipids - have a negatively charged phosphate group and a positively charged amino group, which together causes an electrically neutral state. These include:
  • phosphatidylcholine (old name - lecithin) - in the molecule of which glycerol, higher fatty acids, phosphoric acid and a nitrogenous base - choline are combined
  • phosphatidylethanolamine (kephalin) - its difference from lecithin is that it has a nitrogenous base - ethanolamine

  Phosphatidylcholines and phosphotidylethanolamines are found in the largest quantities in the body of animals and higher plants. These two groups of phosphoglycerides are metabolically related to each other and are the main lipid components of cell membranes in terms of stabilizing their bilayer.

• "negatively charged" - anionic phospholipids - have a negatively charged phosphate group. These include:
  • phosphatidylserine - the nitrogenous compound in the molecule is the amino acid residue serine.

    Phosphatidylserines are much less widespread than phosphatidylcholines and phosphatidylethanolamines, and their importance is determined mainly by the fact that they participate in the synthesis of phosphatidylethanolamines.

  • Phosphatidylinositol is a phospholipid that does not contain nitrogen. The radical (R3) in this subclass of phosphoglycerides is a six-carbon cyclic alcohol - inositol.

    Phosphatidylinositols are quite widespread in nature. Found in animals, plants and microorganisms. In the animal body they are found in the brain, liver, and lungs.

• phosphatidylglycerols:
  • polyglycerol phosphate - cardiolipin; the backbone of the cardiolipin molecule includes glycerol residues connected to each other by phosphodiester bridges through positions 1 and 3, the hydroxyl groups of the two outer glycerol residues are esterified with fatty acids (R1, R2, R3, R4 - radicals of higher fatty acids).

    Cardiolipins are part of the membranes of mitochondria and bacteria. In the inner membrane of mitochondria, up to 20% of all phospholipids belong to cardiolipin. Cardiolipin is not detected on plasma membranes, where up to 60% of the total phospholipid pool is phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin, up to 30% is phosphatidylethanolamine, up to 15% is phosphatidylserine and less than 5% is phosphatidylinositol.

Lipid bilayer membranes. In the cell membrane, phospholipids form a double layer, in which the hydrophobic chains of fatty acids are directed into the membrane, and the hydrophilic polar groups are directed outward. Membrane proteins can be partially or completely immersed in the membrane and be included in the lipid layer (integral proteins) or located on its surface (peripheral proteins). Peripheral proteins are attached to the membrane through polar or ionic interactions. Some integral proteins can stitch through the membrane, protruding beyond its limits on both sides, for example, the protein glycophorin, which is part of the plasma membrane of the erythrocyte.

Membrane fluidity. The lipid bilayer of the membrane has a liquid crystalline structure; the position of lipid molecules is ordered, but they retain the ability to diffuse within the layer parallel to the membrane surface (lateral diffusion). Transverse diffusion (exchange of molecules between layers) is possible only to a limited extent.

Membrane asymmetry. The membrane structures of the cell are normally closed. Each membrane has an internal and external surface, which has a pronounced asymmetry in terms of the location of various phospholipids. For example, phosphatidylcholine is localized on the outer side of the erythrocyte membrane, and phosphatidylethanolamines and phosphatidylserines are located on the inner side. Normally, anionic phospholipids are not present on the outer surface of biomembranes. The appearance of phosphatidylserine (PS) on the outer surface of the erythrocyte membrane is a signal for its removal from the bloodstream. A change in the asymmetry of the platelet membrane, leading to the appearance of PS on the outer membrane, contributes to the development of the local blood coagulation reaction.