Research project in physics “Radiation. What is better - to know or to remain ignorant? Lectures by the best Russian scientists - popularizers of science How the History of the Fatherland Foundation will help popularize history

Poorly and hastily prepared and carried out resettlement caused enormous material and moral damage to the Sami people. Based on the facts obtained using the method of "oral history", the author concludes that one of the small peoples of Russia - the Kola Saami - passed in their history in the 20th century. a difficult path, accompanied by considerable difficulties and suffering. Researchers need to make as much use of the oral history method as possible in order to introduce into scientific circulation the testimonies of those Saami who survived the resettlements and their consequences and saw it all with their own eyes.

L. Allemann

ON THE PAGES OF HISTORICAL MAGAZINES

2012.03.040-044. POPULARIZATION OF HISTORY: PROBLEMS AND PROJECTS. (Consolidated abstract).

2012.03.040. DE GROOT J. Editor's Preface.

DE GROOT J. Editorial // Rethinking history. - L., 2011. - Vol. 15, No. 2. - P. 149-152. - Mode of access: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13642529. 2011. 564807 DOI: 10.1080/13642529. 2011. 564807

2012.03.041. ARROW M. Making history project and popular history in Australia.

ARROW M. The "Making history" initiative and Australian popular history // Ibid. - P. 153-174. - Mode of access: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1080/13642529.2011.564810 DOI: 10.1080/13642529.2011. 564810

2012.03.042. MÜLLER G. Invasion: Some Reflections on the Problem of "Popular"/"Official" History in China. MÜLLER G. Intervention: Some thoughts on the problem of popular/public history in China // Ibid. - P. 229-239. - Mode of access: Http://Dx.Doi.Org/10.1080/13642529.2011. 564825 DOI: 10.1080/1364 2529. 2011.564825

2012.03.043. OPP J. Official History and Site Fragments: Archeology, History and Heritage Sites in Southern Alberta.

OPP J. Public history and the fragments of place: archeology, history and heritage site development in southern Alberta // Ibid. - P. 241-267. -Mode of access: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13642529.2011.564830 DOI: 10.1080/13642529.2011.564830

2012.03.044. TERKEL V. Invasion. Programming for history: From analog to digital and back again.

TURKEL W.J. Intervention: Hacking history, from analogue to digital and back again // Ibid. - P. 287-296. - Mode of access: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13642529.2011.564840 DOI: 10.1080/1364 2529.2011.564840

Rethinking history magazine publishes a selection of articles addressing the following issues: what will popular history be like in the future; subtleties of studying "popular" and "official" history, ways of their interaction; transnational, intercultural models of the past; globalization and official history. Articles written by historians from different continents are reviewed, demonstrating the diversity of historical work and practices, drawing attention to the features of the popularization of history in different countries.

Lately, as Jérôme de Groot writes in the preface (040), there has been a noticeable interest in new forms of representing historical knowledge and popularizing history. We are talking about new media forms, the growth of interest in historical novels, historical documentaries, the constant dialogue between academic, professional history and history buffs, non-professionals, society.

An article by Australian historian M. Arrow (041) from Macquarie University describes the creation of a historical documentary series. According to the author, this example clearly shows the attempts of the liberal-national government of J. Howard (1996-2007) to influence historians, to formulate the official version of national history.

The initiator of the project, called "Making history", was the government, which provided not only the necessary organizational and technological assistance, but also strong financial support (a grant of 7.5 million dollars). After all, it was about films showing the formation and development of the country, the formation of a national character.

The author talks about how the project was created and analyzes the result. The government wanted films to be entertaining and visually diverse. Therefore, the creators of the project were advised to take the British mo-

del documentary. The project was headed by the British producer A. West, and another British specialist, Liz Hartford, who collaborated with S. Shama in the preparation of the television series "History of Britain", was invited to improve the professional skills of Australian specialists. In addition to the technical side of the matter, L. Hartford paid attention to techniques for creating dramatic effects, since, as M. Arrow notes, like most television projects, this one also offered the audience to know the past through emotions, empathy, ideas rather than through the expert assessment of historians. In the television version of the story, emotions become a source of knowledge, he emphasizes.

L. Hartford's master class also included a section for historians, where current trends in the historical science of Australia were discussed. The selection of plots and the intellectual component of the films was taken up by John Hirst, whom M. Arrow characterizes as follows: “The authoritative, conservative historian Hirst worked in government committees and public institutions under the Labor and coalition governments; he was also a board member of the National Museum of Australia” (041, p. 156). D. Hirst was a member of the council formed by the British A. West, who was guided by his own ideas about the current historiographical situation. A. West emphasized his position as an outsider, not involved in professional "historical wars", which gave him the opportunity to present a fresh new look at the history of Australia. D. Hirst was the only professional historian on this council, although, the author notes, this may have been the right decision.

M. Arrow notes that the government paid great attention to historical science. Prime Minister George Howard has been quite critical of Australian historians and historical institutions and has shown a willingness to intervene in professional historical debates to ensure a positive conservative vision of the Australian past. The history of the country, continues M. Arrow, has been and remains one of the topics discussed in political, cultural and media debates. Politicians use history to signify their understanding of national identity, he writes. And Prime Minister George Howard interfered in historical dis-

cuss for several reasons. First, he wanted to challenge the revisionist views of the intellectual left, popular not only in the university environment. Secondly, he wanted to establish a certain nationalist view of the history of the country. That acquired particular importance during the period of the unpopular economic reform. In this way the government hoped to weaken "inconvenient" versions of history and pave the way for benevolent notions of the national past and present. After the prime minister clarified his point of view on history, his government tried to influence the controversy by cutting funding to universities and public media. "This intervention confirmed J. Howard's interest in history as a positive story of achievement, but also showed his desire to highlight the "cultural warriors" as architects of historical knowledge" (041, p. 158).

The first ten films were shown on Australian television between 2007-2009. They all showed an improved version of nation-building, "depicting a select group of white men and their achievements: engineers leading fantastic projects to completion, national or military leaders in times of crisis, determined explorers, 'adventurers' building democracy in colonial Australia" (041, p. 162). Such attention to individuals personalizes Australian history, writes M. Arrow, but at the same time returns to the old-fashioned history of "great people", creators and entrepreneurs. The main theme of the films is nation, leadership and achievement, white men, and aborigines and women are practically not present. The author emphasizes that such an approach is typical for many historical television projects. However, he concludes, despite all the shortcomings of historical television films, they help create emotional connections with the past.

Professor G. Müller, a Sinologist from the University of Heidelberg, writes about the features of “official” and “popular” history in the PRC and talks about the impact of globalization on historical science (042). The author believes that it is necessary to take a more balanced and meaningful attitude to the concepts of "official" / "popular" and take into account historical, cultural and political features.

The first thing sinologists encounter when they write about "official"/"popular" history is the specific features of the Chinese mentality. What is really meant by the terms "official" / "popular"? How to translate them into Chinese, or rather, what concepts correspond to them? After all, there is a whole set of concepts in the Chinese language, depending on what kind of "official" / "popular" is meant. The term "popular" can have several meanings: popular is something that many people like, or popular as the opposite of elite. Depending on what is meant, the appropriate Chinese equivalent should be selected, the author writes.

As for the term “official”, there are also options here. First of all, the opposition "official" - "private" comes to mind, but the term "official" is often associated with the state. In modern China, the role of the state in historical science remains central. History is an important area of ​​identity formation and self-representation, and this is not only the policy of the ruling Communist Party, the author writes, but also the historical tradition. The system of historical education is controlled by the state, while non-state participation is secondary and is possible only if it does not compete with the state monopoly. “It goes without saying that state censorship in China is a constructive limiting factor in the development of a 'truly free' 'opinion market' in history; and historical education, which is the main pillar of identity politics, is closely monitored by the state” (042, p. 231). However, the author admits, even within these limitations there is controversy. But its goal is not so much to test the strength of the borders, as is often presented in the West, but to have strong public support for the official view of history.

In fact, there is a whole network of interactions between the general public and the state. One of the most important connections, of course, is the feeling of nationalism. The psychological factor is no less significant. As the author writes, "normal citizens are accustomed to 'official' interpretations and have largely assimilated them without hesitation" (042,

With. 232). Economic factor (what kind of history is being sold); consumer passivity (I prefer not to change my own beliefs); the problem of interest (if it's done well, it doesn't matter if it's true) all play a part in these interactions too.

Many experts on China note a great interest in history not only in the country, but also in the East Asian region. Historical soap operas are shown on television, sometimes their content is consistent with the officially established point of view on historical events, sometimes they challenge it. Bookstores sell many historical publications, especially biographies, museums and memorials are created, theme parks with a historical component are opened, even in the architectural planning of cities there are traditional elements. VCDs of historical documentaries are sold on the streets. The Chinese government, in particular, stimulates interest in the historical past by organizing tourist tours to revolutionary places.

Recently, interest in the history of other countries has noticeably increased in China. In 2006, Chinese TV aired the Rise of the Great Powers TV series, and a book series was released in addition to the series. This series, the author notes, is a new format for the Chinese public, showing the well-known views of the countries in question from school history books (Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, Great Britain, France, Germany, USSR / Russia, USA), in conjunction with historical narrative and interviews with Chinese and foreign historians. The series is distinguished by a variety of video sequences: images processed using computers, animation of famous paintings, panoramas of modern streets. Thus, the creators of the series deliberately blurred the boundaries between the past and the present.

G. Müller writes that in general, as the example of China shows, the opposition between "popular" (in the sense of unofficial) and "official" does not work. Since globalization has changed the local situation and complicated the relationship between the official and the popular, we are talking about a whole network of relationships that runs straight through the "official" / "popular", through governments and people, discourses and practices, regions, generations, various

MASS MEDIA. To this should be added nationalism, psychology, consumer expectations. Of course, the author continues, it is too early to talk about any cosmopolitanism in China, but there are already examples of the impact of globalization on the "market of history".

About theme parks as a way to popularize history is described in the article (043) by Associate Professor of History D. Opp from Carleton University (Canada). Southern Alberta has several well-known tourist destinations, two of which are thematic ones: "Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump" (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) and "Writing-on-Stone Provincial Park" (in the process of being approved as a World Heritage Site). Located 200 km apart, they are presented to the public as something called the "spirit of the place". The author draws attention to the fact that the Canadian Governor-General idyllically, in the spirit of the 19th century, defines the "spirit of the place". It is a place where "the past comes to life and can be seen, touched and felt, each fragment whispers with the voices of civilization, revealing the presence of those who came before us" (043, p. 242). For specialists, the “spirit of place” is a complex relationship and process that encompasses many competing perceptions and understandings of space, writes D. Opp.

Further, the author describes the thematic places, the problems of their creation and functioning. For example, back in the 1960s, the place where the “Writing-on-Stone park” was later located was just a blank spot on many maps. It has only recently received an official name and has been declared the center of culture of the Blackfoot Indians. When designing the construction, consultations were held with the elders of the tribe and Indians, employees of the organization for the preservation of cultural heritage. The center of the park is sandstone mountains covered with thousands of petroglyphs and pictograms. This park is characterized as "a place where the art of the Stone Age is connected with the world of the Spirit" (043, p. 245). But this place is significant not only for the Indians, but also for the settlers. Therefore, visitors to the park (the park is public) can get acquainted with the history of the natives and the history of settlers. Both stories are united under one heading, Our Elders Remember. Such a policy, in my opinion,

Another theme park, "Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump", is located in the foothills west of the city of Fort McLeod and features a building built into a cliff and several walking paths. Visitors, accompanied by an Aboriginal guide, take an elevator upstairs to view the whole view. Inside, the exhibition is arranged by thematic levels, from top to bottom, ranging from geography and ecology (the world of the Napi people) to the culture of Buffalo, and the end point is the "disclosure of the past" - a mock-up of an archaeological site located nearby. The plaque explains that the site “shows the upper cultural layer of the nomadic tribes of the Blackfoot Indians and an early level of civilization dating from about 3000 BC. BC." (043, p. 255). It is noteworthy that in the oral tradition of the Indians of this tribe there is little mention of this territory, although archaeologists insist on its significance.

More recently, writes D. Opp, “place” was what separates academic history from popular history: the specialist began his study with processes (social or political), and then asked: where did this happen? The amateur saw a remarkable place and asked himself: what happened here? But in recent times, the "place" has become a place filled with people, historians, archaeologists, geographers, sociologists pursuing their own goals. Now it's more than just a location, places accumulate an identity and even a psychology. According to the author, attention should be paid not just to the "spirit of the place", but to its variability, the transformation of the territory, its inhabitants.

An article by Professor of History from the University of Western Ontario (Canada) V. Terkel is devoted to the digitization of historical artifacts (044). The author notes that the conversion of archival documents into digital form is inevitably associated with some losses. These can be details of handwriting, font, markup, some marginal notes. Sometimes the quality or chemical composition of the ink or medium (parchment, paper, etc.) can tell a specialist a lot, but it is impossible to convey in digital form. Any original, whether it be a document, an artifact or the environment, always bears the imprints of the past, and, in principle, much can be learned from

these prints. Nevertheless, digitized documents have certain opportunities for study. For example, the author writes, if a document is scanned or a digital photograph is taken from it, then it will be an exact copy, all the subtleties and nuances of the spelling and arrangement of letters will be present in the digital image. Also, this image can convey the color and quality of the media.

In addition to the already familiar digitization of documents, developments are underway to digitize smells. It is likely that soon it will be possible to capture and analyze the "smell of old books." Gradually breaking down, the paper emits hundreds of volatile organic components. A special device can remember the smell of a book, monitor it, which will allow taking measures for its timely preservation. In addition, the smell of a book, document or manuscript can tell a lot to a specialist. V. Terkel gives an example from a monograph devoted to information problems. The authors of this study observed the following picture in the archive: a historian working with letters from the 18th century took out a bunch of letters and, almost without reading, sniffed the envelopes, then, briefly looking at the envelope and the contents of the letter, made notes and put the documents aside. When asked why he was doing this, he replied that these documents were created during the cholera epidemic, then they were soaked in vinegar to prevent the further spread of the disease. The preserved smell of vinegar, the date and place of writing the letter help him to restore the borders of the epicenter of the epidemic. So the digitization of smells is not only a question of the preservation of the document, but also a help to researchers.

At the same time, the author notes, work is underway to convert digital formats to analog ones. Now an electronic document can be displayed on a computer screen, then either printed on paper or read aloud from the screen using a special converter program (thus the text turns into sound). But a computer, camera, 3 E-printer, and related software make it possible to digitize a three-dimensional object, scale it, save it in digital form, and then print it out on a 3 E-printer as a material object.

Being a great science writer doesn't just mean being able to explain complex ideas and theories in simple terms: it also includes being able to write in a way that makes the reader who isn't an expert in the field want to engage and learn more about the subject. It's hard enough, but over the years there have been people who have been able to do this with science and readers. Here is a list of five dozen of the greatest popularizers of science, whose works are worth reading.

Carl Sagan

Most likely, this author is known for the most part for his releases of the Cosmos program. However, he was also a prolific writer: he published more than 600 scientific papers, and wrote or edited more than 20 different books. Sagan's work was primarily aimed at demonstrating the wonders of the universe to millions of people around the world, and his enthusiasm and intelligence have firmly established his figure in modern astronomy.

Stephen Hawking

His A Brief History of Time became a turning point in the world of popular science texts, demonstrating the theory of cosmology in a way that almost anyone could understand. It was a bestseller for a whole year. His genius, work and personality made Hawking an academic celebrity. Drop by to find out a dozen interesting facts from the life of this interesting person ().

Philip Plate

Plait's books Bad Astronomy and Death from Heaven are widely popular and read around the world, but he is also known for his involvement in the blogosphere, having created both the award-winning Bad Atronomy site and the flagship site of Discover magazine.

Georgy Gamov

Russian theoretical physicist Georgy Gamow has spent most of his career studying the Big Bang, the decay of atoms, and the formation of stars. He expressed his love for science through his writings and was quite successful, winning the Kalinga Prize for helping to popularize science. His text "One, two, three ... infinity" remains popular to this day, addressing issues of mathematics, biology, physics and crystallography.

Brian Green

Physicist Brian Greene is best known for his popular science book, The Elegant Universe, which presents string theory in a very accessible way. His other popular books, Icarus at the Edge of Time, The Cosmos Factory and The Hidden Reality are also worth reading for those interested in the study of physics.

Roger Penrose

Mathematician and physicist Penrose is known for turning the world of physics upside down with his ideas. He has won numerous awards for his research and continues to promote new ideas, such as those expressed in his latest work Cycles of Time: An Extraordinarily New View of the Universe.

Physics and Mathematics

Richard Feynman

Nobel laureate physicist Richard Feynman was once one of the most famous scientists in the world, and still remains widely known among those who study quantum mechanics, particle physics and superfluidity. In addition to his laboratory work, Feynman helped popularize science through his books and lectures, known as the Feynman Lectures on Physics.

Michio Kaku

There are few physicists who have carried physics into popular culture as diligently as Michio Kaku. His book Physics of the Future and Parallel Worlds, among others, made him a well-known figure and solidified his role in the history of science writing.

Steven Weinberg

This Nobel Prize winner in physics has published a number of books that cover everything from fundamental cosmology to discoveries in the field of elementary particles. This author's research has greatly popularized the field, and the work is worth reading.

It is impossible to overestimate this man. Known all over the world and with a name synonymous with the word "genius", this physicist has helped many physicists change their understanding of the nature of space, time and moving bodies. His publications on relativity are fairly easy to understand as the author uses brilliant examples to help you understand a lot of concepts.

Erwin Schrödinger

Known for his work in physics, which earned him the Nobel Prize. Schrödinger worked on everything he could get his hands on, from quantum mechanics to biology. His most popular works are "What is life?" and "Interpretations of Quantum Mechanics".

Ian Stuart

Famous popularizer of mathematics. Ian Stuart has won numerous awards for his books that have brought mathematics and science in general to a huge audience. Science fiction fans love his Offworld Science series, and math fans read his Nature's Numbers series.

Stephen Strogatz

The works of this mathematician cover different areas: sociology, business, epidemiology and others. His work helped to bring many hidden concepts to a large audience, it is interesting and sometimes even emotional.

Douglas R. Hoftstader

The 1980 book Gödel, Escher, Bach: Eternal Golden Braid won the author a Pulitzer Prize. As the son of a Nobel laureate in physics, Hoftstader grew up in the scientific world and has written a number of groundbreaking and insightful books on the subject.

Biological Sciences

Edward O. Wilson

American biologist Edward Osborne Wilson, better known as E. O. Wilson, won the 1991 Pulitzer Prize for his book On Human Nature, in which he postulates that human consciousness depends on social factors and environment more than genetics. Wilson not only studied the life of people, readers will be able to find interesting works about the life of ants and other social insects.

Sir D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson

This pioneer of mathematical biology is well known as the author of the 1917 book On Growth and Form, in which he well described the development of living and non-living matter. Peter Midavan called it "the finest piece of literature in all the annals of science that has been written in the English language."

David Quammen

In addition to writing for National Geographic, Harper's, and The New York Times, Quammen is also a professional science and nature writer. Just take a look at his books The Monster of God: The Man-Eating Predator in the History of the Jungle and Mr. Darwin's Mind and Tenacity: An Intimate Portrait of Charles Darwin and the Formation of His Theory of Evolution, if you can find it.

Paul de Kruy

And although today it can be called outdated, Cruy's work called "Microbe Hunters" made a splash in 1926. Any student interested in a better understanding of microbiology should add this work to their reading list.

Jonathan Weiner

This popular writer has won every award possible, from the Pulitzer to the National Book Critics Circle Award and the Los Angeles Times Book Prize for his writings. Covering topics such as disease, evolution, and aging, Weiner delved extremely deeply into biology and brought it to people.

Evolution and genetics

Stephen Jay Gould

If you have any interest in evolutionary science in general, you must have heard of this man. A paleontologist and professor at Harvard, Gould was also a gifted writer, producing books and essays on evolution and natural history that remain popular to this day.

Richard Dawkins

While he has been accused of shamelessly attacking religion, Dawkins' writings on evolution and genetics are required reading for any student looking to make a career in these fields. His books The Selfish Gene and The Extended Phenotype stirred up the scientific community thirty years ago and are still very significant in evolutionary biology.

Matt Ridley

Ridley is the author of several works in the popular science field, including The Genome: An Autobiography of Species in 23 Chapters and The Rational Optimist: How Success Evolves, on subjects ranging from the genetic code to the path our reproduction.

James D. Watson

Few discoveries have changed our world like the solution to the mystery of our own DNA by scientist James D. Watson and his partner Francis Crick. His most famous book, The Double Helix, demonstrates the properties of DNA in much the same way that a TV soap opera shows people's lives.

Lewis Thomas

Physicist and etymologist Thomas has earned many awards throughout his life for his work. His book Life of the Cell is a brilliantly written collection of essays about the interconnectedness of life on Earth.

Roger Levin

Together with Richard Leakey, Roger Levin, an anthropologist and scientist, had written three books by 1980. He has worked as a freelance writer for three decades, producing works that are both informative and accessible.

Richard Lewontin

Students who are working on a degree in biology would miss out on a lot if they didn't read the books written by this influential scientist. He was a pioneer in the fields of molecular biology, evolutionary theory and population genetics.

Carl Zimmer

Outstanding writer of articles and books about science. Zimmer is one of the most popular science popularizers (sorry for the tautology) today. He writes about almost everything related to biology, from the nature of viruses to the theory of evolution.

Zoology and naturalism

David Attenborough

If you do not know this famous presenter and naturalist, you should be familiar with his voice just like Nikolai Drozdov. In addition, Attenborough is a talented writer who has written many books and screenplays about birds, mammals and our planet.

Frans de Waal

De Waal is known for his research on great apes, and specifically our closest relative, the bonobo, although chimpanzees were also among his research circles. If you want to know more about the social life of primates or bonobos, read the books Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape or Primates and Philosophy: How Morality Evolved.

Jane Goodall

Perhaps this is the most famous primatologist in the world. Goodall's love for chimpanzees and her desire to convince people to understand and save these animals have played a huge role in our world. Throughout her career, she has written books for adults and children, trying to awaken compassion for the world of chimpanzees in the minds of earthlings.

Dian Fossey

Konrad Lorenz

Nobel Prize-winning zoologist Konrad Lorenz has achieved great success in his research in the field of ethology. He was also a significant writer who published many books detailing his zoological adventures.

Rachel Carson

Silent Spring is arguably one of the most important books in science of the 20th century, changing our understanding of interactions with the environment and showing that even the simplest chemicals can affect complex ecosystems. Carson wrote throughout her life, leaving behind a rich collection of scientific essays and publications that are recommended reading for any student.

Peter Medawar

British biologist Peter Medawar had a distinguished career, winning the 1960 Nobel Prize and helping to make discoveries in medicine that changed the world forever. He is also considered one of the most brilliant science writers of all time. The author was known for his wit and ability to write for both professionals and the general public. Medawar's books should be on the shelf next to the science classics.

Stephen Pinker

Cognitive scientist Steven Pinker has helped re-understand the human mind, from evolution to the use of language. His popular books, including Words and Rules and How the Mind Works, would be great additions to any scientific collection.

Oliver Sachs

Physician and best-selling author Oliver Sacks has long been one of the most famous popularizers of science among writers. And not in vain. His books help to explain many neurological disorders in a clever and interesting way, so that people who are practically unfamiliar with medicine remain delighted.

Alfred Kinsey

Kinsey's most famous work was published in two books called The Kinsey Report. They told what happens to a person's sexual behavior behind closed doors. At the time of writing the books, they became very, very colorful, and remain so to this day. Will be needed by many who want to make a career as a biologist, psychologist or in the field of reproductive sciences.

Other areas

Simon Singh

Author, journalist and television producer Simon Singh has focused on bringing science and mathematics to the masses through his work. His popular science books often present complex topics in a very accessible way, giving mere mortals access to the mysteries of Fermat's Theorem, cryptography, and even the science (or lack thereof) of alternative medicine.

Bill Bryson

Having sold over six million books in England alone, Bryson has become a writer who wants to bring a wide range of scientific disciplines to the general public. Often in a humorous and witty manner, his books (such as A Brief History of Nearly Everything) won him several prizes in non-fiction.

James Lovelock

Lovelock's most famous work, Gaia, brought criticism to the author for being too mysterious. However, the book presents the idea that our planet is a single, self-regulating organism that cannot be ignored, and that centuries of pollution on one side of the world will very quickly spill over to the other side.

Jared Diamond

Diamond's Guns, Germs and Steel became a bestseller, detailing what factors come into play when one community dominates another. The writer's works are based on various fields of science, from geography to biology, which automatically makes them interesting for everyone who is fond of science.

Roy Chapman Andrews

Explorer, adventurer and true Indiana Jones, Andrews has lived an incredibly interesting life. At the beginning of the 20th century, he made several major paleontological discoveries in the Gobi desert, discovering the first fossilized dinosaur eggs (read here). Andrews detailed many of his adventures in his books, including The Desert Mystery and It's the Craft of Exploration.

James Gleick

Gleick's works have earned their creator nominations for the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award and have been read all over the world. Most of Gleick's books deal with the impact of science and technology on culture, although there are other biographies and monographs.

Timothy Ferris

Do not confuse with the other Timothy Ferriss (with two "s"). Science writer Tim Ferriss wrote a number of books that were very popular and devoted them to physics and cosmology. His best works are The Science of Freedom and The Aging of the Milky Way.

For all time

Charles Darwin

If you can cut through dry Victorian prose to Darwin, the contents of Darwin's greatest books, The Voyage of the Beagle and The Origin of Species, will reward you. Despite the fact that in textbooks Darwin's conjectures look simple and uncomplicated, in reality they turn out to be much deeper and even more useful.

Isaac Newton

It is unlikely that anyone will dispute that Newton was one of the greatest thinkers who ever lived on Earth, and his works like Principia Mathematica helped bring about a lot of upheavals in science, in people's thinking and in the world in general. Yes, many of Newton's texts will seem outdated to the modern reader, but where to look for truth, if not in the ancient one?

Galileo Galilei

In the past, the church was very upset, to put it mildly, if someone conducted scientific research by a method that was at odds with the church. Galileo's work and his ingenious dialogue about two worlds brought him into the warm embrace of the Inquisition - and his work became eloquent evidence of what happens to those who fight for the truth. But it worked out.

Nicholas Copernicus

Copernicus wrote throughout his life, but the best work came out only when he was on his deathbed - "On the rotation of the heavenly spheres." Of course, this work is very difficult to read, but for everyone who loves mathematics, this will be an incredibly interesting journey into the world of grandiose discoveries of a person with limited technical means.

Aristotle

Many people know Aristotle for his works on philosophy, but he also tried himself in the sciences: in physics, biology and zoology. His views were well received in the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance, but today we know for sure that many of his ideas (but not all) turned out to be wrong. No history of scientific thought has been left without the influence of Aristotle.

Primo Levi

The brilliant chemist Levi came close to losing his life after spending a year in Auschwitz during World War II. His book The Periodic Table was named the best scientific book by every member of the Royal Institution of Great Britain.

As well as art and other things that everyone thinks they understand.
And why do I think it's not worth doing.
Preface. It's called "envy is not joy".
I have a certain girl in my feed. Posts a variety of pictures and to them - "like cool" comments, which most often turn out to be somewhat flat. Just like that - "and where is there to laugh?"
(No, this is not Shakko, this is her epigone! Everything is much more "blonde" and much less mischievous there! Shakko has a depth of knowledge, in the same place - a couple of read encyclopedias)
There was such Paola Volkova. Brought a lot of criticism, but fans, which are numerous, come on: "But she talks about complex things simply!"
Among the "historians" there are also many. The shelves are littered with various "scandals-intrigues-investigations." Bushkov, Kiyanskaya, all sorts of different Radzins and they are innumerable - all these are popularizers.

Unfortunately, the main reason is the mediocrity of popularizers. Most of them aspire to the level of an average guide. That is, they try to compensate for the inaccuracy of the facts with the amusing presentation, but since the storytellers and writers are also so-so, it turns out something flat, vulgar, devoid of special amusement and grace. However, some people like it. For which - "simple about complex."
By the way, there is a fine line between humor, "mischievousness" and outright vulgarity and gags.
Secondly, it is always felt when the author is interested in what he is trying to tell, and when he, in fact, does not care and is bored. But he wants to earn cheap popularity, so he winds up the hurdy-gurdy. In my blog, I try to maintain the style criticized by one media person - "the joy of discovery." I drag everything a la "look what I found!" - and share with readers; in addition, I have a literary approach to history - ist. personalities are interesting to me insofar as their life can be put into a book without inventing anything special)

Secondly, history - it only seems to be simple and accessible, and "popular" history (the one that is printed by magazines a la "Amateur" and is told by Parfenov and the like) is the same as "popular" psychology in glossy magazines. It will be interesting for the laymen to look, more or less savvy will begin to spit and snort; in general, "don't try this at home". I don’t know about art, but I think the salty facts about Rembrandt’s personal life with his Saskia will not reveal to us the essence of Danai or Patrols.
Interestingly, this genre was revived in the 1990s. Soviet "popularizers", including the notorious Pikul, despite some naivety and idealism of their judgments and fitting to the theory of the masses making history and Marxism-Leninism, somehow "knew the coast" and did not consider that history should be shown as another issue "Houses-2" or programs on "Ren-TV".

My other problem is with excursions, with popularizers, and especially with people who have read / watched / listened to popularizers who told them "just about the complicated" - I feel an immoderate feeling of superiority over them. Sometimes I even show that their stories "about Queen Margot and her lovers" are not at all interesting to me and I do not understand what this is about. One naive soul, having come across my reaction after her retelling of an article from the "Caravan of stories", patted me on the shoulder and said: "Well, we must have loaded you with such topics!" I could only smile. There was such impenetrable ignorance that I had nothing to object to.

In general, if we talk about the perception of history, then it, IMHO, must be perceived as life. Like modernity. Just like art is what we see around us.

Silver Age of Nuclear Energy

In more than a century of the history of the official Russian nuclear program, scientists have repeatedly faced a lack of funding, sanctions and other restrictions. According to Alexander Losev, Director General of Sputnik Management Company JSC, at least one important lesson should be learned from history.

Attempts to challenge the priority of Russia in a particular field of science or technology have been made for more than one century. An unfortunate fact: in Russia and in the West, there are different opinions about the authorship of the greatest inventions of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. (However, the Western world is unfair not only to our scientists and natural scientists: every educated citizen of France knows, for example, that the creation of the theory of relativity is the merit of the outstanding French mathematician and physicist Henri Poincaré, and not at all Albert Einstein.)

The thing is that since the Enlightenment, the exchange of scientific ideas and advanced knowledge has gone much faster than the implementation of technical innovations; scientists sought to disseminate and popularize their conjectures and theories; education in developed countries was of quite high quality; that is why many discoveries were made almost simultaneously in different countries, universities and laboratories. Science is international in nature, and this often led to disputes about the palm in discoveries and inventions.

But here's what is indisputable: Russia, or rather the Russian Empire, became the first country in the world where more than a hundred years ago not only theoretical, but also applied research began in the field of using the energy of the atomic nucleus, including for military purposes. Officially, at the state level, the start of the nuclear program in our country was given in 1911, and scientific research on radiation in a number of Russian universities and academies began several years earlier.

This world was shrouded in deep darkness.
Let there be light! And here comes Newton.
But Satan did not wait long for revenge.
Einstein came - and everything was as before.

Samuil Marshak

Beginning of a new era
The beginning of the 20th century is the era of modernism and technological progress. The Russian Empire is one of the five largest countries in the world in terms of GDP, industrialization and economic growth are rapidly going on in it.

Scientific discoveries and advances in engineering: electricity, oil refining, automobiles, airplanes, new manufacturing technologies and communications - all this is changing the world with kaleidoscopic speed. In the first decades of the 20th century, there was a flourishing of philosophical thought, science, and art in Russia - this amazing cultural phenomenon was called the Silver Age.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the scientific community experienced an acute crisis in classical physics. The picture of the world, built on the laws of Newton and the concept of ether - a continuous all-penetrating medium, collapsed with the advent of the theory of electromagnetic fields; classical mechanics seemed incompatible with Maxwell's electrodynamics. There was a need to explain how and by what electromagnetic waves are transported, to give an atomistic representation of the processes of electrodynamics, to create a new theory of the atom, to describe the motion and energy of electrons.

Wilhelm Roentgen's discovery of X-rays (radiation of electrons in cathode tubes) in November 1895, as well as Henri Poincaré's suggestion that certain chemicals and minerals could spontaneously emit these rays, allowed Antoine Becquerel to discover the radioactivity of uranium salts a few months later. This phenomenon indicated a possible relationship between electromagnetic radiation and the structure of the atom.

And although the results of such studies at first did not arouse much interest in academic science (the authority of Newton and the theory of the ether were not disputed), in 1895-1896 the first stones in the foundation of new physics were laid.

Meanwhile in poetry

Russian society of that era showed a keen interest in the latest in science and technology. Konstantin Balmont in 1895 published the poem "Burning Atom, I'm Flying". The poet Velimir Khlebnikov at the same time wrote: “Mighty and huge, the astral harmony is far away. You are looking for an explanation - know the atomic warehouse. And Nikolai Gumilyov notes: “We would not dare to force the atom to worship God if it were not in its nature. But, feeling ourselves as phenomena among phenomena, we become involved in the world rhythm, accept all influences on us and, in turn, influence ourselves.

The baton of research in the field of atomic theory was picked up by French scientists Pierre Curie and his wife Maria Sklodowska-Curie (by the way, a native of the Russian Empire). Their discovery in 1898 of the phenomenon of radiation of salts of thorium, radium and polonium, as well as the discovery by Ernest Rutherford of alpha and beta rays, turned the ideas about the physics of matter.

Further studies of electromagnetic radiation and a description of the phenomenon of decay of elements led to the formation of the planetary hypothesis of the atomic nucleus (E. Rutherford), which Hendrik Lorentz supplemented with electronic theory, and Niels Bohr with postulates of quantum states.

The mathematical models of A. Poincare and H. Lorentz served as the basis for the creation of the relativistic theory and the principle of relativity. Physics received a powerful impetus for development, and new horizons of knowledge opened up before mankind, although the theory of relativity did not eliminate the internal contradictions of classical electrodynamics.

Russian scientists did not stand aside from the new global trends in physical science. Back in 1874, Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev was the first to determine the atomic weight of uranium - 238 g / mol - and placed this element at the very end of his famous table.

In the eighth edition of Fundamentals of Chemistry (1905), Mendeleev writes: “The highest known concentration of the mass of matter into the indivisible mass of the atom, which exists in uranium, should already a priori entail outstanding features. Convinced that the study of uranium, starting from its natural sources, will lead to many more new discoveries, I boldly recommend to those who are looking for subjects for new research to study uranium compounds with particular care.

In 1896, Becquerel's experiments with uranium group minerals were reproduced at the St. Petersburg Military Medical Academy, and then studies of radioactivity and ionizing radiation began at Moscow (1903), St. Petersburg and Tomsk (1904) universities.

Then, more than a hundred years ago, the main problems of Russian physicists were the lack of necessary instruments and measuring instruments, insufficient funding, as well as an acute shortage of the radioactive elements themselves and their extreme high cost. At the end of the 19th century, one gram of radium was comparable in value to 750 kg of gold, which, in terms of today's prices (according to exchange quotations of gold and the dollar), is about 2 billion rubles.

A decade later, this price dropped by two or three times, but the radium necessary for research and medical experiments remained fabulously expensive for a long time and was delivered in milligrams from abroad, mainly from Austria-Hungary. Russia needed its own sources of radioactive minerals.

V. I. Vernadsky and A. E. Fersman. Moscow, 1941

Photo archive of the Mineralogical Museum. A.E. Fersman RAS.

First discoveries
The Russian Empire, embraced by a new wave of technical and spiritual development, actively carried the light of civilization (in every sense) to its outskirts. Railroads and telegraph lines were built, linking the country together.

Thousands of workers, manufacturers, soldiers, officials, scientists, engineers built roads, founded cities, created industries, explored inaccessible lands. The first deposit of radioactive minerals on the territory of the Russian Empire was discovered precisely due to the fact that in the Ferghana Valley at the end of the 1890s the construction of the Central Asian Railway was underway and geological surveys were carried out along the route.

In southern Kyrgyzstan, on the Tyuya-Muyun (Camel's Hump) pass on the slope of the Alai Range, deposits of copper ores were discovered, and among the rock samples sent in 1899 for study to the metallurgical laboratory of the St. Petersburg Technological Institute, there was copper uranite.

In 1907, the first Russian uranium mine, Tyuya-Muyun, began commercial operation, and already in the following year, 1908, an experimental plant for processing uranium and vanadium ores delivered from this Central Asian deposit by rail started operating in St. Petersburg.

Thus, the Russian uranium industry appeared in the distant (and in many respects significant) 1908, which was marked by the fall of the Tunguska meteorite on the territory of Eastern Siberia, the presentation of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry to E. Rutherford "For research in the field of decay of elements in the chemistry of radioactive substances" , the beginning of Diaghilev's "Russian Seasons" in Paris and the launch of the "Ford T" series - the first conveyor assembly car intended for the mass consumer.

In the same year, Professor of Moscow University Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky, elected Academician of the Imperial Academy of Sciences and a member of the State Council of the Russian Empire, went to France and Great Britain, where he exchanged experience with European scientists. In August 1908, at the congress of the British Association of Sciences in Dublin, V. Vernadsky, together with the Irish geologist John Jolie, came up with the idea of ​​​​creating a new scientific direction - "radiogeology".

In the autumn of the same year, returning to Russia, Academician Vernadsky made a presentation at the Physics and Mathematics Department of the Academy of Sciences, substantiating the importance of studying radioactivity, including for applied research, as well as the search for new technical possibilities and areas of application of radioactive elements.

The following year, 1909, V. Vernadsky visited the Tuya-Muyun uranium ore deposit and began to prepare the Radium Expedition of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences. At the same time, for a systematic study of the phenomenon of radioactivity, the Radium Commission was created, and Vernadsky became its chairman. Thus, it was he who was destined to become the Russian founder of the science of radioactive elements.

“Now, when humanity is entering a new age of radiant - atomic energy, we, and not others, must know, we must find out what the soil of our native country holds in itself in this respect. For the possession of large reserves of radium will give its owners strength and power, before which the power that the owners of gold, land and capital can pale in front of, ”wrote Academician Vernadsky in 1910.

About the atom in poetry

At the beginning of the twentieth century in Russia, not only scientists knew that the atom was fraught with new energy of great destructive power. The advanced theory of nuclear reactions was also reflected in the poetry of the Silver Age.
"The world was torn in the experiments of Curie
Atomic, bursting bomb
On electron jets
Unincarnated hecatomb",
- write the poet Andrei Bely, a physicist by training, one of the leading modernists and symbolists of the early twentieth century. He will become the author of the concept of "atomic bomb", as once another poet of the Silver Age Velimir Khlebnikov introduced the word "pilot" into the Russian language.

First problems
But research is hampered by an age-old problem - lack of funding. The Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1910 did not have the financial means to support the work of the Radium Commission.

Only a year later, the state allocated 14 thousand rubles to Vernadsky for the creation of a special laboratory for the study of radiation. At the same time, a proposal was submitted to the State Duma to allocate 100,000 rubles for the search for deposits of radioactive minerals, justifying the need to study such minerals, as well as the prospects for the use of radioactive elements in medicine, including for the treatment of cancer, and in agriculture.

In 1911, the Radium Laboratory of the Academy of Sciences was finally established in St. Petersburg, and the atomic program of the Russian Empire officially started. And since 1912, the Radium Expedition began its permanent work.

Academician Vernadsky already then foresaw that atomic energy would change the conditions of people's lives, just as steam and electric power once did: “We have opened up sources of energy, before which the power of steam, the power of electricity, the power of explosive chemicals pale in strength and significance.<…>In the phenomena of radioactivity, new sources of atomic energy are opening up before us, surpassing by millions of times all sources of energy that only the human imagination can imagine.

Arguing in his speeches and publications the extreme importance of research into the phenomenon of radiation and the search for uranium minerals, V. Vernadsky wrote: "... When an atom of a radioactive element decays, huge amounts of atomic energy are released."

In the age of electricity gaining strength, such words sounded like parting words to scientists and engineers, a call to continue research. The brilliant assumption that the fission of the atomic nucleus is an exothermic process, accompanied by the release of a large amount of energy, was made by the great Russian scientist long before the discovery of the neutron, the creation of cyclotrons and particle accelerators, and almost three decades before Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered the process of fission of uranium nuclei during the absorption of neutrons.

The search for new radiant energy and strength contained in heavy elements, the desire to understand what beta and gamma radiation can give humanity (the very “electronic jets” that Andrei Bely wrote about) occupied the minds of many Russian scientists and engineers at the beginning of the 20th century . Hence the great interest in the study of not only radioactivity, but also the general properties of electromagnetic fields, and methods for the practical use of electromagnetic radiation.

pioneers

The discovery of uranium ore was officially announced by Professor Ivan Alexandrovich Antipov in 1900 at a meeting of the St. Petersburg Mineralogical Society.
Later, in the materials of the Academy of Sciences it will be officially noted that in Russia the honor of the first works on the study of radioactive minerals belongs to Professor I. A. Antipov, as well as Professor of Tomsk University P. P. Orlov and Professor of Moscow University A. P. Sokolov. Among the first Russian researchers of the atom were also V. A. Borodovsky and L. S. Kolovrat-Chervinsky, who worked in the Curie laboratory.

In December 1907 (the year of the death of Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev), at the first Mendeleev Congress, organized in his memory by the Russian Physical and Chemical Society, Vasily Andreevich Borodovsky made a report "on the energy of radium."
In April 1908 Privatdozent V. Borodovsky will be sent on a business trip abroad and will become the first Russian scientist to study radiation at the Cavendish Laboratory of Cambridge University, where Professors D. Thomson and E. Rutherford then worked. Subsequently, several Soviet scientists will follow the same path, and the Cavendish Laboratory will turn into an international scientific center for physical research.

The radium expedition of the Academy of Sciences conducted an active search for radioactive minerals in Central Asia, Transbaikalia, the Urals and Transcaucasia. The government of Austria-Hungary, which established a virtual monopoly on the extraction of radium, introduced a ban on the export of radioactive materials outside the country in 1913, which means that the question of searching for Russian radium, actinium and thorium on the eve of World War I turned from a purely scientific into a strategic one. Exploration work continued in Siberia, the Northern Urals and the Arkhangelsk province.

But there were still not enough funds for geological and laboratory research, the appropriations allocated by the state, the Academy of Sciences were not enough to continue the radium program. Instead of the requested 46 thousand rubles, the Academy of Sciences was able to allocate only 16 thousand rubles to the Radium Expedition, of which more than a third were private donations.

The only thing that helped was the fantastic ability of V. Vernadsky to unite scientists, engineers and involve statesmen and large Russian entrepreneurs in projects. Political connections also came in handy - Vernadsky was a member of the Central Committee of the Constitutional Democratic Party, which represented the interests of the big and middle bourgeoisie in the State Duma.

The banker, textile magnate, well-known Moscow philanthropist Pavel Pavlovich Ryabushinsky agreed to organize a meeting of famous scientists and Moscow entrepreneurs in his mansion on Prechistensky Boulevard. On the evening of November 1 (14), 1913, a famous meeting took place, at which P. P. Ryabushinsky asked Academician Vernadsky, as well as the famous chemist N. A. Shilov and professors Ya. V. Samoilov, V. D. Sokolov and V. A. Obruchev (the future author of "Plutonia" and "Sannikov Land") to tell the assembled representatives of large Moscow business about the prospects for the use of radium in medicine and industry, as well as about its ultra-high cost, which can guarantee the profitability of mining.

Fersman Alexander Evgenievich (in the center). Tyuya-Muyuna mine, South Kyrgyzstan.

Shilov gave a short lecture and showed his experience with radium preparations, academician Vernadsky read a report "On radium and its possible deposits in Russia", mentioning new powerful sources of atomic energy.

The "energy" argument had an effect on the entrepreneurs of the era of the beginning of mass electrification of production. But then a legal question arose about the rights of private investors and companies to radium deposits: there was a risk that the state would delay development permits and, possibly, monopolize the right to develop uranium mines. Unfortunately, such fears of business representatives were not in vain.

Academician Vernadsky received funding. Expeditions to Central Asia and Transbaikalia were organized at the expense of Ryabushinsky, and the search for deposits continued. The Imperial Academy of Sciences petitioned the State Duma to resolve legal issues for working with radium. Meetings of entrepreneurs and scientists in the house of P. Ryabushinsky continued next year.

By the beginning of 1914, four radiological laboratories were already operating in Russia. On January 25 (February 7), 1914, the Council of Ministers of the Russian Empire approved appropriations for the exploration of deposits and the purchase of radium for scientific and medical institutions. But already on May 27 (June 9), 1914, a bill was submitted to the Duma on "recognizing the state's exclusive right to mine radium."

Interesting fact

It is not surprising that in the same 1911, a landmark for Russian science, on May 9 (22), another extremely important event took place in St. Petersburg in the field of the use of electromagnetic waves by mankind.

Russian engineer Boris Lvovich Rosing, who previously applied for the invention of a “method of electrical transmission of images at a distance”, was the first in the world to be able to transmit and receive a television signal and received a clear image on the device, which became the prototype of the TV kinescope.

It was at the meeting of the Russian Technical Society, at the moment of a public demonstration of the operation of a cathode ray tube with a screen and the action of electromagnetic fields, that the era of television began on planet Earth.

World War I
On July 15 (28), 1914, the Austro-Hungarian heavy artillery began shelling Belgrade, and the regular units of the Austro-Hungarian army crossed the Serbian border. Russia stood up for Serbia and announced a general mobilization. The First World War began, in which more than 10 million soldiers were killed, approximately 12 million civilians, mostly European states, and about 55 million people were injured.

The World War hindered basic research and collaboration between scientists. Some Russian scientists called for severing scientific contacts with Germany and Austria, university professors and students signed up as volunteers for the army. Went to the front to deal with the chemical protection of troops and the evacuation of the wounded and one of the students and associates of Vernadsky - Vitaly Grigorievich Khlopin.

Scientists of the Imperial Academy of Sciences focused on solving problems important for the army and transferring the economy to a military footing. Minister of War Vladimir Alexandrovich Sukhomlinov actively contributed to the introduction of new types of weapons and equipment in the army. Scientists and engineers who worked for the needs of the front and rear received the support of the state and big business.

The search for uranium deposits and applied research on radium continued under the control of the War Department. During the war, an employee of the Radiological Laboratory, L. A. Chugaev, published the results of his research in the work "Radioelements and their transformations." Another step was taken towards the discovery of nuclear reactions.

Participation in a large-scale war requires resources and reserves of strategic raw materials for the production of weapons and ammunition, including chemical weapons. Under the leadership of Academician Vernadsky, a special Commission is being created to study the natural productive forces of Russia, whose tasks include: the search for new deposits, the organization of applied scientific research and production.

Within the framework of this commission, a department of energy was formed, which later became the Energy Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences. It was in this department that in 1916 a detailed plan was developed for the development of the Russian electric power industry and the large-scale electrification of its economy. The implementation of the plan of 1916 was prevented by two revolutions and two wars: the First World War and the Civil War. It was fully implemented already in the USSR and received the name GOELRO.

The bloody massacre of the First World War, unprecedented in scale, made many famous scientists think about the moral aspects of their activities and that their discoveries pose a serious danger to humanity.

Among them was V. Vernadsky, who, in the year of the end of the civil war, wrote: “The time is not far off when a person will receive atomic energy in his hands, such a source of power that will give him the opportunity to build his life as he wants. ... Will a person be able to use this power, direct it to good, and not to self-destruction? Has he matured to the ability to use the power that science must inevitably give him?<…>Scientists should not close their eyes to the possible consequences of their work.<…>They must link their work to the best organization of all mankind.”

The carriages were moving along the usual line,
They trembled and creaked;
Silent yellow and blue;
In green wept and sang.

Alexander Blok

Red terror
The revolution of 1917 and the civil war that followed it almost led to the complete catastrophe of Russian science. From 1918 until the early 1930s, the Russian scientific and creative intelligentsia was the object of political red terror. People who belonged to certain classes and social strata before the revolution were subject to destruction.

University professors in large cities and even academicians of the Imperial Academy of Sciences who remained in Petrograd after the October Revolution of 1917 did not receive ration cards or rations. Very many Russian scientists did not survive the winter of 1918/1919 and starved to death.

People's Commissar of Education A. V. Lunacharsky in the spring of 1918 called Russian universities "a pile of garbage" and argued that "the old school has become obsolete."

Academicians and corresponding members of the Academy of Sciences were arrested, some of them were shot. In July 1921 Academician Vernadsky was also arrested. He was threatened with the death penalty in the so-called "Tagantsev case", fabricated by the Cheka, when representatives of the scientific and creative intelligentsia were subjected to mass executions. Vernadsky was then saved by the petition of his colleagues to Dzerzhinsky.

In this case, 833 people were arrested, among them the outstanding poet Nikolai Gumilyov, the place of execution and burial of which remained unknown.

Then, at the initiative of Lenin, a resolution was adopted “on the expulsion from the country of the most active counter-revolutionary elements from among professors, philosophers, doctors, writers”, and there was a “Philosophical steamboat” of 1922. The silver age of the atom, which laid the fundamental foundations and opened up applied areas of nuclear research, was coming to an end.

Conclusion
Despite the Red Terror and the "cultural revolution", science survived and the atomic project did not die. By some miracle, Academician Abram Fedorovich Ioffe and Professor Mikhail Isaevich Nemenov managed to achieve in March 1918 the signing of a decree on the creation of the world's first State X-ray and Radiological Institute, the radium department of which was headed by scientist L. S. Kolovrat-Chervinsky.

Research continued at Petrograd University. In 1919, Professor Dmitry Sergeevich Rozhdestvensky reported on the results achieved with the report “Spectral Analysis and the Structure of Atoms”. Another step was taken towards the creation of a quantum theory of light and a model of the atomic nucleus.

In 1922, on the initiative of Academician Vernadsky, the Radium Institute was established on the basis of the Radiochemical and Radium Laboratories of the Academy of Sciences and the Radium Department of the Roentgenological Institute. Now it is the oldest organization that is part of the state corporation "Rosatom" - JSC "Radium Institute named after V. G. Khlopin".

Vernadsky himself headed the institute, and in 1939 he was replaced in this post by his student Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences V. Khlopin.

In 1937, at the Radium Institute, a group of I. V. Kurchatov, L. V. Mysovsky and M. G. Meshcheryakov launched the first cyclotron in Europe, and in 1940, employees of the Institute G. N. Flerov and K. A. Petrzhak discovered the phenomenon spontaneous fission of uranium nuclei.

Unfortunately, due to the revolution, civil war, red terror, repressions and restrictions on foreign contacts, Russian physical science lost two important decades. The leadership of the Red Army - Trotsky, Voroshilov, Tukhachevsky, Yegorov, Timoshenko and others - unlike the tsarist minister Sukhomlinov, did not appreciate the information about the importance of atomic energy and refused the proposal of nuclear physicists to start developing nuclear weapons. It was also very difficult for Academician Vernadsky to convince Stalin and Molotov to start commercial mining of uranium.

Our country for many years after the revolution caught up with the world, instead of becoming the first power to master the energy of the atom. Russia has learned a bitter lesson: the ideology of permanent revolution, the incompetence of the authorities and the neglect of science harm the development of the state and endanger its security.

Academician Vernadsky did not live long enough to realize his ideas in nuclear energy, as well as to create (and use in combat) nuclear weapons. He died in Moscow on January 6, 1945, when units of the 2nd and 3rd Ukrainian Fronts were storming Budapest, and the troops of the 1st Belorussian Front were preparing to liberate Warsaw. Only four months remained before the Victory, less than a year before the launch in Moscow by Academician I. Kurchatov of the first nuclear reactor in the USSR, and four and a half years before the triumph of Soviet nuclear physicists and the successful testing of the RSD-1 atomic bomb.

The golden age of the Russian atom will begin in the mid-1940s and will continue for almost the entire second half of the 20th century. The great achievements and terrible tragedies of that era make us remember the need for enlightenment and the moral development of society, as well as how important it is for both the authorities and the citizens of the country to understand the enormous value of scientific research and technological progress.

Gregory Z.

Research project in physics

"Radiation.

Objective of the project: find out what radiation is, what properties it has, measure and analyze the radiation background that surrounds us in life.

In this project, I will try to show the importance of the development of nuclear energy to improve the quality of life of the population, to describe the consequences of the influence of radiation on the life and health of people.

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Municipal budgetary educational institution

Uren secondary school №1

Research project in physics

"Radiation.

What is better - to know or to remain ignorant?

Project developed:

Student 9 "b" class

MBOU USOSH №1

Z. Gregory

Supervisor:

Volovatova E. A. -

Physics teacher

Implementation timeline:

2013-2014 academic year

1. Introduction

1. Actualization of the selected project topic…………………………….…. 2
2. Purpose and objectives of the project…………………………………………………… 2

1. Theoretical part

1. Nuclear power in the modern world…………………….…. four

1. Prospects for the development of nuclear energy, its pros and cons ... .. .4
2. Development of nuclear energy in the Nizhny Novgorod Region………..… 10

1. Radiation…………………………………………………….……. fourteen

1. Types of radiation…………………………………………………………… 14
2. Radiation in everyday life………………………………………… 18
3. Sources of radiation…………………………………………………… 22
4. Radiation background of the area…………………………………………… 26
5. How to protect yourself from radiation………………………………………….. 32

1. Practical part

1. Measurement of the radiation background of the area…………………………… 34
2. Sociological survey of the population…………………………………….. 37

1. Conclusion………………………………………………………………. 40
2. List of used literature……………………………………... 42

Attachment 1……………………………………………………………. 43

Annex 2……………………………………………………………. 46

Appendix 3……………………………………………………………. 47

Annex 4……………………………………………………………. 51

1. Introduction.

1. Updating the selected project topic.

The topic of my research project is “Radiation. What is better - to know or to remain ignorant? was not chosen by me by chance. This topic was largely chosen because of its importance and relevance for modern society and man! For our country, nuclear energy is of great importance, since it was in the USSR in the city of Obninsk in 1954 on June 27 that the world's first industrial nuclear power plant was put into operation. Since then, this type of energy has been constantly improved and improved, and by 2012, nuclear energy already produced 13% of the world's energy. Impressive result!

Watching the news happening in the world, I came across the following problem: People are increasingly hearing the words “Nuclear energy, “Radiation”, which in most cases cause only concern and fear. What do we really know about the radiation that surrounds us and should we be so afraid of it?

Trying to find an answer to this question for myself, I wanted to study this topic in more detail.

1. Purpose and objectives of the project.

Objective of the project: find out what radiation is, what properties it has, measure and analyze the radiation background that surrounds us in life.

In this project, I will try to show the importance of the development of nuclear energy to improve the quality of life of the population, to describe the consequences of the influence of radiation on the life and health of people.

During the study, I will get acquainted with a device for measuring the background radiation - a dosimeter, with its help I will measure the radiation background of the area and compare it with acceptable standards. I will conduct a sociological survey of the population to determine the level of their awareness on this issue.

Research methods:analysis of information from scientific literature and Internet resources, measurement of the radiation background of the area, sociological survey of the population of the city.

Research objectives:

1. Determine the level of development of nuclear energy in Russia at a given point in time;
2. Find out what is the effect of radioactive radiation on the human body;
3. Analyze the state of the background radiation in the city and the school.
4. To popularize the information obtained as a result of research work with the help of a designed booklet.

While thinking about the project, I decided to check this hypothesis: if people know more about radiation, they can distinguish under what conditions it is dangerous and where it does not pose a threat, then nuclear energy in the country can reach a new level of its development.

1. theoretical part.

1. Nuclear power in the modern world.

1. Prospects for the development of nuclear energy.

Energy is an area of ​​human economic activity, which consists in the transformation, distribution and use of energy resources for the benefit of man. The entire history of mankind is inextricably linked with the production of energy: thermal (to cook food or keep warm), electrical, etc. Energy production is the economic basis of any state, because if it does not exist, then there will be no people in such a state. The need of a modern person for energy is increasing every day, and the resources needed for its production are getting smaller, which means that a person has a huge responsibility for the conservation of hard-to-renew resources - coal, oil, gas, etc. That is why humanity has come to a new type of energy production - nuclear energy. It requires a smaller amount of non-renewable resources, and renewable types of energy, in particular solar, are more efficient.

In an increasingly competitive and multinational global energy market, a number of critical factors will influence not only the choice of energy type, but also the extent and nature of the use of different energy sources. These factors include:

• optimal use of available resources;
• reduction of total costs;
• minimizing environmental impacts;
• convincing demonstration of safety;
• meeting the needs of national and international politics.

What is nuclear energy?

Nuclear energy is an area of ​​energy that is engaged in the production of thermal and electrical energy by converting nuclear energy. It is most significant where there is a shortage of energy resources, namely in France, Belgium, Finland, Sweden, Bulgaria and Switzerland. The world leaders in its production are: the USA, France and Japan. Annually, about 18% of all energy in Russia is generated by nuclear power. Nowadays, such nuclear power plants operate in Russia as: Balakovo, Beloyarsk, Bilibinsk, Kalinin, Kola, Kursk, Leningrad, Novovoronezh, Rostov, Smolensk.

The prospects for the development of nuclear energy in the world will be different for different regions and individual countries, based on the needs and electricity, the size of the territory, the availability of fossil fuel reserves, the possibility of attracting financial resources for the construction and operation of such a rather expensive technology, the influence of public opinion in a given country, and a number of other reasons.

We will separately considerprospects for nuclear energy in Russia. The closed research and production complex of technologically related enterprises created in Russia covers all areas necessary for the functioning of the nuclear industry, including ore mining and processing, metallurgy, chemistry and radiochemistry, machine and instrument making, and construction potential. The scientific and engineering potential of the industry is unique. The industrial and raw material potential of the industry already makes it possible to ensure the operation of Russian nuclear power plants for many years to come, in addition, work is planned to involve the accumulated weapons-grade uranium and plutonium in the fuel cycle. Russia can export natural and enriched uranium to the world market, given that the level of uranium mining and processing technology in some areas exceeds the world level, which makes it possible to maintain positions in the world uranium market in the face of global competition.

But the further development of the industry without the return of public confidence in it is impossible. To do this, on the basis of the openness of the industry, it is necessary to form a positive public opinion and ensure the possibility of the safe operation of nuclear power plants. Taking into account the economic difficulties of Russia, the industry will soon focus on the safe operation of existing capacities with the gradual replacement of the spent units of the first generation with the most advanced Russian reactors (VVER-1000, 500, 600), and a slight increase in capacities will occur due to the completion of the construction of already started plants. In the long term, Russia is likely to increase its capacity in the transition to nuclear power plants of new generations, the level of safety and economic performance of which will ensure the sustainable development of the industry in the future.

In the dialogue of supporters and opponents of nuclear energy, complete and accurate information on the state of affairs in the industry both in a separate country and in the world, scientifically based forecasts of development and demand for nuclear energy are needed. Only on the path of openness and awareness can acceptable results be achieved. Millions of people in the world mine uranium, enrich it, create equipment and build nuclear power plants, tens of thousands of scientists work in the industry. This is one of the most powerful branches of modern industry, which has already become an integral part of it.

Nuclear power in comparison with thermal and hydropower:

1. Thermal energy.

Being one of the most developed, it begins to fade into the background, as it consumes a very large amount of natural resources, and also causes great harm to the environment. Air pollution, biosphere, "lunar landscapes" - all this is the impact of thermal energy.

1. Hydropower.

A relatively cheap means of generating electricity. Does not cause such an impact on the environment as thermal, but also has its drawbacks, and this is land flooding, the destruction of a large number of rivers, pollution of water resources, the death of fish, etc.

1. Atomic (nuclear) energy.

The youngest industry, energy production. Is the safest. The only negative, probably, is thermal pollution, according to statistics comparable to thermal energy.

From all this we can conclude that today nuclear energy is the most acceptable and safe energy in the world. Its impact on the environment is minimal, apart from thermal pollution and radiation.

Pros and cons of nuclear energy

The main advantages of nuclear energy are high final profitability and the absence of emissions of combustion products into the atmosphere (from this point of view, it can be considered environmentally friendly), the main disadvantages are the potential danger of radioactive contamination of the environment by nuclear fuel fission products during an accident (such as at Chernobyl or at an American power plant). Tree Mile Island) and the problem of reprocessing spent nuclear fuel.

Let's look at the benefits first. The profitability of nuclear energy is made up of several components. One of them is independence from fuel transportation. If a power plant with a capacity of 1 million kW requires about 2 million tons of fuel equivalent per year. (or about 5 million low-grade coal), then for the VVER-1000 unit it will be necessary to deliver no more than 30 tons of enriched uranium, which practically reduces the cost of transporting fuel to zero (at coal-fired power plants, these costs amount to 50% of the cost). The use of nuclear fuel for energy production does not require oxygen and is not accompanied by a constant release of combustion products, which, accordingly, will not require the construction of facilities to clean up emissions into the atmosphere. Cities located near nuclear power plants are basically environmentally friendly green cities in all countries of the world, and if this is not the case, then this is due to the influence of other industries and facilities located on the same territory. In this regard, TPPs paint a completely different picture. An analysis of the environmental situation in Russia shows that thermal power plants account for more than 25% of all harmful emissions into the atmosphere. About 60% of TPP emissions are in the European part and the Urals, where the environmental load significantly exceeds the limit. The most difficult ecological situation has developed in the Ural, Central and Volga regions, where the loads created by the fallout of sulfur and nitrogen in some places exceed the critical ones by 2-2.5 times.

The disadvantages of nuclear power include the potential danger of radioactive contamination of the environment during severe accidents such as Chernobyl. Now at nuclear power plants using reactors of the Chernobyl type (RBMK), additional safety measures have been taken, which, according to the IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency), completely exclude an accident of this severity: as the design resource is exhausted, such reactors should be replaced by new generation reactors of increased security. Nevertheless, a change in public opinion in relation to the safe use of atomic energy will apparently not happen soon. The problem of disposal of radioactive waste is very acute for the entire world community. Now there are already methods of vitrification, bituminization and cementing of radioactive waste from nuclear power plants, but territories are required for the construction of burial grounds, where these wastes will be placed for eternal storage. Countries with a small territory and high population density are experiencing serious difficulties in solving this problem.

1. Development of nuclear energy in the Nizhny Novgorod region.

Nizhny Novgorod NPP- projected nuclear power plant in Nizhny Novgorod region . The object is included in the general scheme for the placement of electric power facilities of the Russian Federation until 2020.

Two sites were considered for the construction of the station: in the Navashinsky district on the site of the villageMonakova 23 km from the city Murom , either in Urensky district , 20 km southwest of the cityUren b.

From media news “Construction of the nuclear power plant will begin 20 kilometers from Uren. The fact that the government of the Russian Federation approved the general scheme for the placement of electric power facilities until 2020, "NN" has already reported and talked about the fact that it includes the construction of the Nizhny Novgorod nuclear power plant. Now it has become known that the nuclear power plant will be located 20 kilometers southwest of Uren.” The relevant information appeared on the official website of the Federal Agency for Atomic Energy.

Actually, even before the appearance of an official document in the Nizhny Novgorod government, they talked about this area as the most preferable for a grandiose construction project. Many factors speak in favor of this option, including the energy system developed here, and the remoteness from the regional center (190 kilometers), and the presence of water sources, which are also necessary for the normal functioning of the nuclear power plant. There are other factors that will still be studied in the final selection of the future construction site, which must meet not only the already mentioned, but also other requirements.

Commenting on this information, Olga Zilinskaya, press secretary of the Nizhny Novgorod engineering company Atomenergoproekt (JSC NIAEP), noted that the company would definitely participate in the tender to select the general contractor for the construction of nuclear power plants. The company's specialists are planning to start work on the investment justification of the project this year. And in the next it is planned to carry out the design of the nuclear power plant and begin the first work on the ground, in 2011 the laying of the foundation of the nuclear power plant should take place. The commissioning of the first block is scheduled for 2016, the second - for 2018. The nuclear power plant is planned to be fully built by 2020.

It is assumed that three VVER-1200 power units will be commissioned at the Nizhny Novgorod nuclear power plant, and the installed capacity of the nuclear power plant for 2020 will be 3.45 thousand MW.

The regional ministry of the fuel and energy complex refused to comment on the information about the construction of a nuclear power plant near Uren. And the administration of the Urensky district cautiously noticed that the issue is still being resolved. The caution is understandable. But do not forget that nuclear power is the future.

In August 2009, the choice was made in favor of a site in the Navashinsky district; at the moment, a license from Rostekhnadzor has already been received for the placement of 2 power units of a nuclear power plant. The station will have two power unitsVVER-TOI with a total capacity of 2510 MW.

As part of the implementation of the agreement on cooperation between the region andFederal Atomic Energy Agency the following deadlines have been set:

• year 2009 - Completion of design work on nuclear power plants.
• 2011 - Start of NPP construction.
• 2016 - Commissioning of the I power unit.
• 2018 - Commissioning of the II power unit.

The deadlines for commissioning the other two power units have not yet been determined.

In January 2011, the Federal Environmental, Industrial and Nuclear Supervision Service issued a license to JSC Rosenergoatom to locate power units No. 1 and No. 2 of the Nizhny Novgorod NPP in the Navashinsky District of the Nizhny Novgorod Region, near the village of Monakovo.

On November 9, 2011, Prime Minister Vladimir Putin signed a decree on the construction of a nuclear power plant. In this order, the commissioning dates for the first and second power units were shifted to 2019 and 2021, respectively. Two other power units are not planned to be built.

The design of the station is planned to be completed in 2013, and construction will begin in 2014. As expected, the first block of the nuclear power plant will be put into operation in 2019, the second - in 2021.

Local authorities in the future may face serious public opposition to the implementation of the project.

According to environmental organizations, 149,000 people of the Vladimir region and only 39,000 of the Nizhny Novgorod region fall into the 30-kilometer zone around the nuclear power plant. 28 km from the village. Monakovo is one of the oldest cities in Russia - Murom (population 140 thousand people). The population density on the territory of the Vladimir region in a 30-kilometer zone is 116.4 people / km² (permissible 100 people / km²).

Inhabitants Murom held several protests against the construction of nuclear power plants. Protest signatures were collected and sent to the presidential administration. Among other things, it was stated that young residents of the district center with children are going to leave the city if the construction of the station begins.

The main reason for the cancellation of construction is the location of the Nizhny Novgorod region on karst soils prone to sinkholes, which have been repeatedly recorded in the region. The last of them was recorded in April 2013 in the village of Buturlino. Then the diameter of the funnel was 85 meters.

In the Nizhny Novgorod region at the end1980s construction has been halted under public pressureGorky nuclear power plant .

The appearance of a nuclear power plant in the area can radically change life in the region, which today lags behind many other territories of the Nizhny Novgorod region. He will receive an additional impetus for development.

So why are most people protesting so vehemently at the construction of a nuclear power plant near their place of residence? What exactly causes fear and apprehension? With these and other questions, I went out into the street in order to conduct a sociological survey of the population and try to find answers to them. [Appendix 2 - sociological survey of the population]

1. Radiation.

1. Types of radiation.

Radiation is a generalized concept. It includes various types of radiation, some of which are found in nature, others are obtained artificially. [Appendix 1, Fig.6 Radiation penetrating power]

Ionizing radiation, if we talk about it in general terms, are various types of microparticles and physical fields capable of ionizing a substance. The main types of ionizing radiation are electromagnetic radiation (X-ray and gamma radiation), as well as charged particle flows - alpha particles and beta particles that occur during a nuclear explosion. Protection against damaging factors is the basis of the country's civil defense. Consider the main types of ionizing radiation.

alpha radiation

Alpha radiation is a stream of positively charged particles formed by 2 protons and 2 neutrons. The particle is identical to the nucleus of the helium-4 atom. It is formed during the alpha decay of nuclei. For the first time, alpha radiation was discovered by E. Rutherford. Studying radioactive elements, in particular, studying such radioactive elements as uranium, radium and actinium, E. Rutherford came to the conclusion that all radioactive elements emit alpha and beta rays. And, more importantly, the radioactivity of any radioactive element decreases after a certain specific period of time. The source of alpha radiation is radioactive elements. Unlike other types of ionizing radiation, alpha radiation is the most harmless. It is dangerous only when such a substance enters the body (inhalation, eating, drinking, rubbing, etc.). The alpha radiation of a radionuclide that has entered the body causes truly nightmarish destruction, tk. the quality factor of alpha radiation with energies less than 10 MeV is 20 mm, and energy losses occur in a very thin layer of biological tissue. It practically burns him. When alpha particles are absorbed by living organisms, mutagenic (factors that cause mutation), carcinogenic (substances or a physical agent (radiation) that can cause the development of malignant neoplasms) and other negative effects can occur. The penetrating power of alpha radiation is low. held back by a piece of paper.

Beta radiation.

Beta particle (β particle), a charged particle emitted by beta decay. The stream of beta particles is called beta rays or beta radiation. The energies of beta particles are distributed continuously from zero to some maximum energy, depending on the decaying isotope. Beta rays are able to ionize gases, cause chemical reactions, luminescence, act on photographic plates. Significant doses of external beta radiation can cause radiation burns to the skin and lead to radiation sickness. Even more dangerous is internal exposure from beta-active radionuclides that have entered the body. Beta radiation has a significantly lower penetrating power than gamma radiation (however, an order of magnitude greater than alpha radiation).

Gamma radiation.

Gamma radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation with an extremely short wavelength and, as a result, pronounced corpuscular and weakly expressed wave properties. Gamma rays are high energy photons. Gamma radiation is emitted during transitions between excited states of atomic nuclei, during nuclear reactions (for example, during the annihilation of an electron and a positron, the decay of a neutral pion, etc.), as well as during the deflection of energetic charged particles in magnetic and electric fields. Gamma rays are characterized by high penetrating power. Gamma rays cause the ionization of the atoms of matter.

Irradiation with gamma rays, depending on the dose and duration, can cause chronic and acute radiation sickness. Stochastic effects of radiation include various types of cancer. At the same time, gamma radiation inhibits the growth of cancerous and other rapidly dividing cells. Gamma radiation is a mutagenic and teratogenic factor.

A layer of matter can serve as protection against gamma radiation. The effectiveness of protection (that is, the probability of absorption of a gamma-quantum when passing through it) increases with an increase in the thickness of the layer, the density of the substance and the content of heavy nuclei (lead, tungsten, depleted uranium, etc.) in it.

Neutrons - electrically neutral particles, appear mainly in the immediate vicinity of a working nuclear reactor, where access, of course, is regulated.

x-ray radiationsimilar to gamma rays, but lower in energy. By the way, our Sun is one of the natural sources of X-rays, but the earth's atmosphere provides reliable protection from it.

Ultraviolet radiation and laser radiation in our consideration are not radiation.

Charged particles interact very strongly with matter, therefore, on the one hand, even one alpha particle, when it enters a living organism, can destroy or damage a lot of cells, but, on the other hand, for the same reason, sufficient protection against alpha and beta -radiation is any, even a very thin layer of solid or liquid matter - for example, ordinary clothing (unless, of course, the source of radiation is outside).

Distinguish between radioactivity and radiation.

Sources of radiation- radioactive substances or nuclear installations (reactors, accelerators, X-ray equipment, etc.) - can exist for a considerable time, and radiation exists only until it is absorbed in any substance.

1. Radiation in everyday life.

The world around us is radioactive. Usually man-made radiation makes a small contribution compared to natural sources. Only in exceptional cases can it threaten human health.

The "Big Bang" that scientists now believe began the existence of our universe was accompanied by the formation of radioactive elements and radioactive study. Since then, radiation has been constantly filling outer space. The sun is a powerful source of light and heat, and also creates ionizing radiation. There are radioactive substances on our planet, and from its very birth.

Man, like the whole world around him, is radioactive. Trace amounts of natural radioactive substances are also always present in food, drinking water and air. Since natural radiation is an integral part of our daily life, it is called background radiation.

Over the past half century, man has learned to artificially create radioactive elements and use the energy of the atomic nucleus for a variety of purposes. The resulting radiation began to be called technogenic. In terms of power, man-made radiation can many times exceed natural radiation, but they have the same physical essence. Therefore, natural and man-made radiation have the same effect on surrounding objects and living organisms.

Natural radiation usually does not cause concern. In the process of evolution, we have adapted to it quite well, and taking into account the fact that the natural background is different in different places. And this does not affect the health of the population.

In some places, people receive additional exposure due to the fact that they live in radioactively contaminated areas, for example, in the zone of the Chernobyl accident or in the zone of the 1957 accident in the South Urals. For the majority of such territories, the contribution of "accidental" exposure is less than the natural background.

Man-made radiation always raises the question: is it not dangerous? It all depends on the dose of radiation received. Moreover, the dose from natural and man-made sources should be summed up. If the total dose is in the range of natural background fluctuations, there is no real danger to health. It's like being in Finland or Altai. For the body, these doses are small.

The danger arises when the dose is hundreds and thousands of times higher than the natural background. This does not happen in everyday life. Powerful technogenic sources have good biological protection, therefore, normally, their contribution to irradiation is much less than the natural background.

You can get a high dose of radiation only under emergency circumstances. For example, in case of cancer, a patient is prescribed a course of intensive radiotherapy (doses are thousands of times higher than the background ones). Or, which is extremely rare in general, there was a severe accident at a nuclear reactor, and a person ended up at the epicenter (doses are tens of thousands of times higher than the background level).

The death and mutation of the cells of our body is another natural phenomenon that accompanies our lives. In an organism of about 60 trillion cells, cells naturally age and mutate. Millions of cells die every day. Many physical, chemical, and biological agents, including natural radiation, also "spoil" cells, but in normal situations, the body can easily cope with this.

During the fission of atomic nuclei, a large amount of energy is released, capable of tearing off electrons from the atoms of the surrounding matter. This process is called ionization, and the energy-carrying electromagnetic radiation is called ionizing. An ionized atom changes its physical and chemical properties. Consequently, the properties of the molecule in which it enters change. The higher the level of radiation, the greater the number of ionization events, the more damaged cells will be.

For living cells, changes in the DNA molecule are most dangerous. Damaged DNA can be repaired by a cell. Otherwise, she will die or give a modified (mutated) offspring.

The body replaces dead cells with new ones within days or weeks, and mutant cells are effectively discarded. This is what the immune system does. But sometimes defense systems fail. The result in the long term may be cancer or genetic changes in the offspring, depending on the type of damaged cell (regular or germ cell). Neither outcome is predetermined, but both have some probability. Spontaneous cases of cancer are called spontaneous.

If the responsibility of one or another agent for the occurrence of cancer is established, the cancer is said to have been induced.

If the radiation dose exceeds the natural background by hundreds of times, it becomes noticeable to the body. The important thing is not that it is radiation, but that the body's defense systems are more difficult to cope with the increased number of damage. Due to the frequent failures, additional "radiation" cancers arise. Their number can be several percent of the number of spontaneous cancers.

Very high doses, this is thousands of times higher than the background. At such doses, the main difficulties of the body are not associated with altered cells, but with the rapid death of tissues important to the body. The body cannot cope with the restoration of the normal functioning of the most vulnerable organs, primarily the red bone marrow, which belongs to the hematopoietic system. There are signs of acute malaise - acute radiation sickness. If the radiation does not immediately kill all the cells of the bone marrow, the body will eventually recover. Recovery after radiation sickness takes more than one month, but then a person lives a normal life. [Annex 1, Fig. 3 Consequences of exposure]

Theoretically, in addition to cancer, there may be other consequences of exposure to high doses.

If radiation has damaged the DNA molecule in the egg or sperm, there is a risk that the damage will be inherited. This risk can add little to spontaneous hereditary disorders. It is known that spontaneously occurring genetic defects, ranging from color blindness to Down's syndrome, occur in 10% of newborns. For humans, the radiation addition to spontaneous genetic disorders is very small. Even among the Japanese survivors of the bombing with high doses of radiation, contrary to the expectations of scientists, it was not possible to identify it. There were no additional radiation-induced defects after the accident at the Mayak plant in 1957, and they were not detected after Chernobyl either.

1. Sources of radiation.

There are two ways to irradiate. The first, if radioactive substances are outside the body and irradiate it from the outside, is external exposure. The second way is internal: radionuclides enter the body with air, food and water.

Sources of radioactive radiation are combined into two large groups: natural and artificial, that is, man-made. Scientists say that it is the terrestrial sources of radiation that are responsible for most of the radiation to which a person is exposed. [Appendix 1, Fig. 1 Radiation sources]

Natural types of radiation fall on the Earth's surface either from space or from radioactive substances in the earth's crust. The intensity of the influence of cosmic radiation depends on the height above sea level and latitude, so people living in mountainous areas and those who constantly use air transport are at additional risk of exposure.

The radiation of the earth's crust is mainly dangerous only near deposits. But radioactive particles can get to a person in the form of building materials, phosphate fertilizers, and then on the table in the form of food. The reason for the radioactivity of building materials is radon - a radioactive inert gas without color, taste and smell. Radon accumulates underground, and it comes to the surface during mining or through cracks in the earth's crust.

The discovery of radioactivity was the impetus for the applied use of this phenomenon, as a result of which artificial sources of radioactive radiation were created, which are used in medicine, for the production of energy and atomic weapons, for the search for minerals and detection of fires, in agriculture and archeology. The danger is also represented by objects taken out of the “forbidden” zones after nuclear power plant accidents, and some precious stones.

In medicine, a person is exposed to radiation when undergoing X-ray examinations, when using radioactive substances to diagnose or treat various diseases. Ionizing radiation is also used to combat malignant diseases. Radiation therapy affects the cells of biological tissue in order to eliminate their ability to divide and reproduce.

The discovery of such a phenomenon as radiation led to the creation of nuclear weapons, the testing of which in the atmosphere is an additional source of exposure to the population of the Earth. For almost 40 years, the Earth's atmosphere has been heavily polluted by the radioactive products of atomic and hydrogen bombs.

Nuclear power plants (NPPs) are also a source of radiation, since the production of electricity is based on chain reactions of fission of heavy nuclei. One of the factors of human exposure after accidents at nuclear power plants is the technogenic radiation background of nuclear power, which is small during normal operation of a nuclear installation. Depending on the nature of the accident at a nuclear power plant, radioactive substances released into the atmosphere enter the environment and are carried by air currents to various distances from the epicenter of the accident. All habitats, flora, fauna located in the explosion zone will be exposed to radiation. A radioactive cloud is deposited on the ground with rainfall.

But a nuclear power plant poses an increased danger only in case of an emergency. An example is the infamous Chernobyl all over the world, and more recently Fukushima.

Worldwide after the accident at the Japanese nuclear power plant "Fukushima" in March 2011. disputes began about the future of nuclear energy. The events have activated the opponents of nuclear power all over the world. In some countries, plans for the development of nuclear power are being revised. Many nuclear power plant construction projects have been frozen.

The radiation level at one of the nuclear reactors of the Fukushima-1 nuclear power plant in Japan exceeded the norm by a thousand times; on the outer border of the territory of the nuclear power plant - eight times. The increase in radiation levels occurred due to the shutdown of the cooling system inside the nuclear power plant, caused by a powerful earthquake on March 11, 2011. The cooling systems of three nuclear reactors of another nuclear power plant, Fukushima-2, which is located 11.5 kilometers from Fukushima-1, failed.

Fukushima is compared with Chernobyl: in both cases, the accidents were assigned the maximum, seventh level of nuclear danger on the IAEA nuclear event scale. As in the USSR in 1986, in Japan, a mass evacuation of the population from the zone of radioactive damage was carried out. As in Chernobyl, in Fukushima the soil and water are contaminated with radioactive isotopes dangerous for living organisms, the period of decay of some of them is more than 30 years.

In this regard, many countries have decided to abandon nuclear energy. For example:

Italy: On June 13, 2011, a nationwide referendum was held in Italy, in which 47 million citizens were invited to speak on a number of issues, including regarding the government's program to resume nuclear energy. Based on the results of the vote, the country will abandon nuclear energy; efforts will be directed to the development of renewable sources.

Switzerland: On June 8, 2011, Swiss MPs supported the government's plans to phase out nuclear energy by 2034. According to the decision taken by the Swiss Federal Council, nuclear power plants operating in the territory of the Confederation will be switched off after their service life reaches 50 years; thus, the oldest nuclear power plant will stop supplying electricity in 2019, the newest - in 2034.

Japan: In accordance with the requirements of the Japan Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency, nuclear power plant reactors undergo technical inspection every 13 months. If in April 2012 the last of the operating reactors is stopped for testing, and the installations that have passed the inspection are not launched, this will mean that Japan finally refuses to generate electricity at nuclear power plants.

[Appendix 1, Fig.2. The most radioactive countries in the world]

1. Radiation background of the area.

Dosimeter - instrument for measuringeffective dose or power ionizing radiation for some period of time. [Appendix 1, Fig. 4 Dosimeter]. The measurement itself is calleddosimetry .

Types of dosimeters:

Professional.

In addition to measuring the dose of radiation, they can measure the activity of a radionuclide in any sample: an object, liquid, gas, etc. Dosimeters-radiometers can measure the flux density of ionizing radiation to check for radioactivity of various objects or assess the radiation situation on the ground.

Domestic.

Inexpensive personal dosimeters that measure the dose rate of ionizing radiation at the household level with not high measurement accuracy - for checking food, building materials, etc. Household dosimeters mainly differ in the following parameters:

• types of detected radiation - only gamma, or gamma and beta;
• type of ionizing radiation detection unit - a gas-discharge counter (also known as a Geiger counter, or an improved analogue, a Geiger-Muller counter) or a scintillation crystal / plastic; the number of gas-discharge counters varies from 1 to 4;
• location of the detection unit - remote or built-in;
• the presence of a digital and / or sound indicator;
• time of one measurement - from 3 to 40 seconds;
• dimensions and weight;

What is the unit of measure for radioactivity?

The measure of radioactivity is activity . It is measured in Becquerels (Bq), which corresponds to 1 disintegration per second. The content of activity in a substance is often estimated per unit weight of the substance (Bq/kg) or volume (Bq/m3).

There is also such a unit of activity as Curie (Ci). This is a huge value: 1 Ki = 37000000000 Bq.
The activity of a radioactive source characterizes its power. So, in a source with an activity of 1 Curie, 37000000000 decays per second occur.

As it was saidabove , during these decays, the source emits ionizing radiation. The measure of the ionization effect of this radiation on matter isexposure dose. Often measured in Roentgens (R). Since 1 Roentgen is a rather large value, in practice it is more convenient to use the millionth (μR) or thousandth (mR) of the Roentgen.

The action of common household dosimeters is based on the measurement of ionization over a certain time, that isexposure dose rate. The unit of measurement of the exposure dose rate is micro-roentgen/hour.

Dose rate multiplied by time is called dose . The dose rate and the dose are related in the same way as the speed of the car and the distance traveled by this car (path).

To assess the impact on the human body, the conceptsequivalent dose and equivalent dose rate. They are measured in Sieverts (Sv) and Sieverts/hour respectively. In everyday life, we can assume that 1 Sievert \u003d 100 Roentgen. It is necessary to indicate which organ, part or whole body received a given dose.

It can be shown that the above-mentioned point source with an activity of 1 Curie (for definiteness, we consider a source of caesium-137) at a distance of 1 meter from itself creates an exposure dose rate of approximately 0.3 Roentgen / hour, and at a distance of 10 meters - approximately 0.003 Roentgen / hour. A decrease in the dose rate with increasing distance from the source always occurs and is due to the laws of radiation propagation.

Natural sources give a total annual dose of approximately 200 mrem (space - up to 30 mrem, soil - up to 38 mrem, radioactive elements in human tissues - up to 37 mrem, radon gas - up to 80 mrem and other sources).

Artificial sources add an annual equivalent dose of approximately 150-200 mrem (medical devices and research - 100-150 mrem, TV viewing - 1-3 mrem, coal-fired thermal power plant - up to 6 mrem, consequences of nuclear weapons tests - up to 3 mrem and others sources).

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines the maximum allowable (safe) equivalent radiation dose for a planet inhabitant as 35 rem, subject to its uniform accumulation over 70 years of life.

Biological disorders in single (up to 4 days) irradiation of the whole human body

What is "normal background radiation" or "normal radiation level"?

The radiation background is the radiation of radioactive origin, which is present on Earth from man-made and natural sources. It should be noted that it affects a person constantly. It is impossible to completely avoid radiation exposure. On Earth, life arose and develops under constant irradiation.

The radiation background consists of such components as radiation from technogenic radionuclides, that is, from artificial ones, radiation from radionuclides that are in the air, the earth's crust and other environmental objects, and space radiation. The radiation background on the ground is measured in terms of exposure dose rate.

On Earth, there are populated areas with an increased radiation background. These are, for example, the highland cities of Bogota, Lhasa, Quito, where the level of cosmic radiation is about 5 times higher than at sea level. These are also sandy zones with a high concentration of minerals containing phosphates mixed with uranium and thorium - in India (Kerala state) and Brazil (Espirito Santo state). It is possible to mention the site of the outlet of waters with a high concentration of radium in Iran (the city of Romser).

Although in some of these areas the absorbed dose rate is 1000 times higher than the average over the Earth's surface, the survey of the population did not reveal any shifts in the patterns of morbidity and mortality.

In addition, even for a particular area there is no "normal background" as a constant characteristic, it cannot be obtained as a result of a small number of measurements.

In any place, even for undeveloped territories where "no human foot has set foot", the radiation background changes from point to point, as well as at each specific point over time. These background fluctuations can be quite significant. In habitable places, the factors of the activity of enterprises, the work of transport, etc. are additionally superimposed. For example, at airfields, due to high-quality concrete pavement with crushed granite, the background is usually higher than in the surrounding area.

1. How to protect yourself from radiation.

Radiation can enter our body in any way, and often objects that do not arouse suspicion become the culprit. An effective way to protect yourself is to use a radiation dosimeter. With this miniature device, you can independently control the safety and environmental cleanliness of the space and objects around you. With the threat of real radioactive contamination, the first thing to do is hide. In fact, it is important to take shelter indoors as soon as possible, protect the respiratory organs and protect the body.

In a room with windows and doors closed and ventilation turned off, potential internal exposure can be reduced. Ordinary cotton fabrics, when used as filters, reduce the concentration of aerosols, gases and vapors by 10 times or more. At the same time, the protective properties of fabric and paper can be increased if they are wetted.

To protect the skin from radioactive contamination, you can thoroughly wash the body, and hair and nails must be disinfected with special means. Clothing should be destroyed. If it was not possible to avoid contact with radioactive elements, then the action of harmful substances can be combated with the help of special iodine tablets. Doctors also recommend applying an iodine mesh to the body or taking one spoonful of seaweed. It is better not to overdo it with iodine, since the use of iodine without sufficient reason and in excessive quantities is not only useless, but also dangerous.

If you are afraid of radiation, then you can add seafood to your daily diet. To protect yourself from radiation in everyday life, avoid eating unknown-grown early vegetables.

The reproductive organs, mammary glands, bone marrow, lungs, and eyes suffer the most from radiation. Therefore, some doctors recommend only in case of urgent need to be examined on medical x-ray machines: no more than once a year.

It is not uncommon for commonly used objects to be highly radiant. A watch with a self-luminous dial is also a source of "X-rays", and uranium can be used to give shine to artificial porcelain teeth.

If we talk about doses of radiation, then it is harmful to life in any doses. The consequences of radiation exposure may appear in 10-20 years or in the next generations. At the same time, radiation is much more dangerous for children than for adults. An ordinary person receives 4/5 of the exposure from the natural background, and a nuclear power plant, subject to all operating rules, is safe. "Heat saving" in the premises, that is, non-ventilation of rooms or offices, and X-ray examinations cause much more exposure than the neighboring nuclear power plant.

[Appendix 1, Fig. 5 Diagram of the harm of exceeding the background radiation]

1. Practical part.

1. Measurement of the radiation background of the area.

With the help of a dosimeter, I measured the radiation background of some classrooms of the school, at home, and places that pose an increased danger, as well as some food products in the store.
Measurement results.

1. When the EED power is 0.04 ... 0.23 μSv / h, this considered safe;

2. 0.24...0.6 µSv/h - admissible valueradiation background. An increased level can be recognized by natural causes (radiation from granites and other minerals, the influence of cosmic radiation, etc.). The health of a person constantly living at such a dose rate is not endangered;

3. 0.61...1.2 µSv/h - alarming (suspicious) level: having found a similar area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe area, it is necessary to report it to the nearest sanitary and epidemiological station for a thorough check. A short stay in such an area does not affect the state of health;

4. Above 1.2 µSv/h - dangerous level : even a short stay is not recommended - it is necessary to leave this place as soon as possible.

It is important to remember that it is not the dose rate that is dangerous, but the dose accumulated by the body, which depends on the time spent in the contaminated area. Even with a very high dose rate, you will not be in serious danger if you quickly leave the dangerous place.

So, after analyzing the data obtained, we can conclude that the radiation background in all places where the measurements were taken is within the safe norm.

In the informatics office, the radiation background is 0.26 µSv/h, which is also within the acceptable range. A large amount of computer equipment is concentrated there, which emits radiation in the course of its work. The smallest background radiation was observed at home in the living room, as well as near the school grounds, i.e. on the street. From the table, you can see that a CRT TV emits more radiation than modern LCD TVs.

The data received near the radars was greater than at the cell tower. It is understandable, since in the first case, the signal generated by the locators is many times more powerful than the cell tower signal. There is a difference in the readings of the level of radiation of imported and domestic fruits, but it is insignificant.

I would like to note that people in the store, when they saw that I was measuring radiation with a dosimeter, became alert. They began to ask what happened, is everything all right? Immediately remembered the recent events in Japan.

As the saying goes, "Forewarned is forearmed."Thus, as a result of my research, I learned in more detail about the radiation background of my school and city, and made sure that the radiation background is within acceptable limits and does not pose a danger.

Background radiation measurement is one of the main sections in radiation safety, which has great prospects and is actively developing today.

1. Sociological survey of the population.

In order to study the level of awareness of the population of the city on the issue of nuclear energy in the country and the region, as well as radiation, I went out into the street with the questions of the questionnaire.

I would like to note that everyone to whom I offered to answer questions agreed with pleasure and willingly went to communicate.

A total of 20 people were interviewed, including 6 men, 14 women aged 20 and over.

The analysis of the survey showed the following results.

1. Do you know the ways and sources of radiation entering the human body? What exactly?

• External radiation;
• contaminated food, water;
• Air;
• solar radiation;
• Computers, cell phones;
• X-ray study.

1. Do you know how to protect yourself from radiation? What exactly?

• Protective clothing;
• Shelters;
• Medical preparations.

1. What was your attitude to the issue of building a nuclear power plant near the city of Uren in 2009?

1. Will you change your mind about the development of nuclear energy if you know more about radiation, about its benefits and harms?

1. Positive aspects of the existence of nuclear power plants in the city:

1. Additional jobs;
2. Increasing the budget of the district;
3. Additional funding;
4. Improving the infrastructure of the city;
5. Benefits to the population.

It can be seen from the constructed diagrams that not all people have an idea of ​​what radiation is, how to protect themselves from it, and whether radiation has any positive aspects. From all this I conclude that it is necessary to disseminate information on radiation, presented in an accessible form in the form of a booklet.

1. Conclusion.

So, as a result of my research work, for myself, I completely rethought all the concepts and knowledge that I previously had about radiation. In many ways, radiation, for ordinary people who do not delve into it, appears primarily as a fatal disease. But in fact, with skillful use, it will not cause significant harm to the human body.

According to the results of a sociological survey, in most cases people simply did not have enough information about radiation, but would like to know more about it. This problem, just the same, is the basis of the fear of the word "Radiation" and it is this problem that needs to be addressed in the first place.

Science does not stand still, more and more new ways of working with nuclear power plants appear, every year, every day this type of energy is becoming safer. An example is the measurement of background radiation that I conduct: the old, Soviet TV was more radioactive than the new LCD TV.

So people should learn and know about the nuclear power plant, its properties and positive aspects. For this, in most cases, it will be enough just a column in the newspaper and a two-minute video on TV shows, news.

Thus, summing up, I conclude that radiation, in today's world, is not a source of panic and horror, is not as dangerous as people think it is, which is caused by insufficient awareness of the population. After all, even on the street, at home, in the forest - everywhere there is such an interesting and exciting thing for the human mind - radiation!

Based on the foregoing, I believe that my hypothesis is confirmed.If people know more about radiation, they can distinguish under what conditions it is dangerous and where it does not pose a threat, then nuclear energy in the country can reach a new level of its development.This is evidenced by the positive response of the city's population, which participated in a sociological survey to the question "Will you change your mind about the construction of a nuclear power plant in your city if you know more about radiation?"

1. Bibliography.

1. E. Cabin. Radiation. The dangers are real and false. An attempt at a popular presentation of topical problems of radiation ecology.
2. T.N. Tairov. Nuclear power: for or against? Comparative analysis of radioactive contamination generated by nuclear power plants and coal-fired thermal power plants.
3. I. Ya. Vasilenko, O. I. Vasilenko. The radiation risk of exposure to low doses is negligible.
4. http://www.eprussia.ru/
5. http://www.rosatom.ru/
6. http://nuclphys.sinp.msu.ru/radiation/
7. http://www.radiation.ru/begin/begin.htm
8. http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki

Attachment 1.

Fig.1 Sources of radiation

Fig.2 The most radioactive countries in the world

Fig.3 Consequences of irradiation

Rice. 4 Dosimeter

Fig.5 Diagram of the harm of exceeding the radioactive background

Fig.6. Penetrating power of radiation

Appendix 2

Sociological survey of the population. Survey questions.

Husband. Women's

1. Age

Less than 20 years 20 - 30 years 30 - 40 years More than 40 years

1. Did you know that in 2009 there were plans to build a nuclear power plant near Uren?

Well no

1. What was your attitude towards this event?

Positive negative Passive (don't care)

1. If the nuclear power plant was still built, would you be afraid of it? If yes, why?

Well no

1. Do you know what radiation is?

Well no

1. Do you know the ways and sources of radiation entering the human body?

Not really

If yes, which ones?___________________________________________________

1. Do you know what effect radiation has on the human body?

yes no negative positive

1. Do you know how to protect yourself from radiation?

Well no If yes, which ones? _____________________________

1. Do you know why they refused to build a nuclear power plant in Uren?

Yes No Why?_______________________________________________

1. If the nuclear power plant were built near the city of Uren, what positive aspects can you single out._________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Appendix 3

Photo report of work.

Appendix 4