What are the religious mythological representations of the Egyptians. Mythological representations as the most important element of ancient Egyptian culture. Features of the religion of ancient Egypt. The attitude of the Egyptians towards death and immortality. Ideas about the world of the ancient Egyptians

CONTENT
Introduction………………………………………………………. .3
Chapter 1. Religious and mythological representations of the ancient Egyptians………………………………………………….5

Egyptian mythology…………………………….5
Ancient Egyptian "Book of the Dead"……………12

Introduction.

The fragments of the religious texts of Ancient Egypt that have come down to us testify to how important a place was occupied in the Egyptian religion and culture by the belief in magic, that is, that with the help of magical practices (names, spells, charms, formulas, figures, images and amulets, as well as ceremonies accompanied by "words of power" 1), supernatural results can be achieved. From the very beginning of their history until its completion, the ancient Egyptians were influenced by this faith.
Egyptian magic arose at a time when the primitive inhabitants of pre-dynastic and prehistoric Egypt believed that the earth, the underworld, the air, the sky, were inhabited by countless creatures, visible and invisible. These creatures were considered friendly or hostile to man, depending on whether the natural phenomena that they allegedly commanded were favorable or unfavorable for people. The favor of meek and friendly beings could be achieved by gifts and sacrifices. And manifestations of hostility on the part of the harsh and unforgiving could be avoided either by pleasing them and flattering them, or by calling for help - by means of an amulet, a secret name, a magic formula, a drawing - forces more powerful than the one that threatened him. Most of the ancient peoples used magic to give a person the power of a supernatural being, to allow him to achieve what is beyond his capabilities, and become for a time as powerful as the true owner of this power. But Egyptian magic forced friendly and hostile forces to do the will of man, regardless of their desire.
From the religious books of ancient Egypt, we know that the power of a priest or a person who knows and skillfully uses magic was considered almost limitless.
Elements of Egyptian "black" and "white" magic can be traced in the magical systems of many countries of the world. It is impossible to say exactly how many beliefs and religious systems of other nations were influenced by them, but one thing is certain: the religious ideas of many pagan cults and Christian sects originate in Egypt.
The purpose of this work is to present the ideas of the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians regarding the gods, Judgment, Resurrection and Immortality. Consider in what ways they influenced the fate of a person, people and the state as a whole. An attempt to give an idea of ​​the magical side of the Egyptian religion.

Chapter 1. Religious and mythological representations of the ancient Egyptians.

1.1 Egyptian mythology.
Sources for studying the mythology of Ancient Egypt are characterized by incompleteness and unsystematic presentation. The character and origin of many myths are reconstructed on the basis of later texts. The main monuments that reflected the mythological ideas of the Egyptians are a variety of religious texts: hymns and prayers to the gods, records of funeral rites on the walls of the tombs. The most significant of them are the "Pyramid Texts" - the oldest texts of royal funeral rituals carved on the walls of the interiors of the pyramids of the pharaohs of the V and VI dynasties of the Old Kingdom (XXVI - XXIII centuries BC); "Texts of the sarcophagi", preserved on the sarcophagi of the Middle Kingdom (XXI - XVIII centuries BC), "The Book of the Dead" - compiled from the period of the New Kingdom to the end of the history of Egypt.
Egyptian mythology began to take shape in the 6th - 4th millennium BC. e., long before the rise of class society. Each region (nome) develops its own pantheon and the cult of gods embodied in heavenly bodies, stones, trees, birds, snakes, etc.
Cosmogonic myths, judging by the data of archeology, in the most ancient period of Egyptian history there were no cosmic gods who were credited with the creation of the world. Scholars believe that the first version of this myth originated shortly before the unification of Egypt. According to this version, the sun was born from the union of earth and sky. This personification is undoubtedly older than the cosmogonic ideas of priests from large religious centers. As usual, the already existing myth was not abandoned, and the images of Geb 2 and Nut 3 as the parents of the sun god Ra have been preserved in religion throughout ancient history. Nut brings forth the sun every morning and hides it every night in her womb.
Common to all cosmogonic concepts was the idea that the creation of the world was preceded by the chaos of water, immersed in eternal darkness. The beginning of the exit from chaos was associated with the emergence of light, the embodiment of which was the sun. The notion of an expanse of water from which a small hill initially emerges is closely related to Egyptian realities: it almost exactly corresponds to the annual flood of the Nile, the muddy waters of which covered the entire valley, and then, retreating, gradually opened up land ready for plowing. In this sense, the act of creation of the world, as it were, was repeated annually.
Egyptian myths about the beginning of the world do not represent a single, integral story. Often the same mythological events are depicted in different ways, and the gods in them appear in different guises. It is curious that with the multitude of cosmogonic plots explaining the creation of the world, very little space is given to the creation of man. It seemed to the ancient Egyptians that the gods created the world for people. In the written literary heritage of Egypt, there are very few direct indications of the creation of the human race, such indications are an exception. In the main, the Egyptians limited themselves to the belief that man owes his existence to the gods, who expect gratitude from him for this, understood very simply: a person must worship the gods, build and maintain temples, and regularly make sacrifices.
The priests of Heliopolis created their own version of the origin of the world, declaring it to be the creator of the sun god Ra, identified with other gods - creators Atum 4 and Khepri 5 . Atum was usually depicted as a man, Khepri as a scarab, which means that his cult dates back to the time when the gods were given the form of animals. Curiously, Khepri never had a place of worship of its own. As the personification of the rising sun, he was identical to Atum - the setting sun and Ra - the shining day. The appearance of a scarab attached to it was associated with the belief that this beetle is able to reproduce on its own, hence its divine creative power. And the sight of a scarab pushing its ball suggested to the Egyptians the image of a god rolling the sun across the sky.
The myth of the creation of the world by Atum, Ra and Khepri is recorded in the Pyramid Texts, and by the time its text was first carved in stone, it probably existed for a long time and was widely known.
According to the Pyramid Texts, Ra - Atum - Khepri created himself, emerging from the chaos called Nun. Nun, or the First Ocean, was usually depicted as a boundless pre-eternal body of water. Atum, emerging from it, did not find a place where he could hold on. Therefore, he created Ben-ben hill in the first place. Standing on this island of solid ground, Ra-Atum-Khepri set about creating other cosmic gods. Since he was alone, he had to give birth to the first pair of gods himself. From the union of this first pair, other gods were born, thus, according to the Heliopolitan myth, the earth and the deities ruling it appeared. In the ongoing act of creation from the first pair of gods - Shu (Air) and Tefnut (Moisture) - Geb (Earth) and Nut (Sky) were born. They in turn gave birth to two gods and two goddesses: Osiris, Set, Isis and Nephthys. Thus arose the Great Nine gods - the Ennead of Heliopolis.
Sometimes the vault of heaven was presented in the form of a cow with a body covered with stars, but there were also ideas according to which the sky is a water surface, the celestial Nile, along which the sun flows around the earth during the day. Under the ground there is also the Nile, along it the sun, having descended beyond the horizon, floats at night. The Nile, flowing through the earth, was personified in the image of the god Hapi, who contributed to the harvest with his fertile spills. The Nile itself was also inhabited by good and evil deities in the form of animals: crocodiles, hippos, frogs, scorpions, snakes, etc. The fertility of the fields was in charge of the goddess - the mistress of the bins and barns Renenutet, revered in the form of a snake that appears on the field during the harvest, careful harvesting. The grape harvest depended on the vine god Shai.
Myths of the funeral cult.
An important role in Egyptian mythology was played by ideas about the afterlife as a direct continuation of the earthly one, but only in the grave. Its necessary conditions are the preservation of the body of the deceased (hence the custom to mummify corpses), the provision of a dwelling for him (tomb), food (commemorative gifts and sacrifices brought by the living). Later, ideas arise that the dead (i.e., their ba, soul) go out into the sunlight during the day, fly up to heaven to the gods, wander through the underworld (duat). The essence of a person was conceived in the inseparable unity of his body, souls (it was believed that there were several of them: ka, ba; the Russian word “soul”, however, is not an exact match of the Egyptian concept), name, shadow. All sorts of monsters lie in wait for the soul wandering through the underworld, and you can escape from them with the help of special spells and prayers. Over the deceased, Osiris, together with other gods, administers the afterlife judgment (the 125th chapter of the Book of the Dead 6 is specially dedicated to him). Before the face of Osiris, psychostasia occurs: the weighing of the heart of the deceased on the scales, balanced by the truth (the image of the goddess Maat or her symbols). The sinner was devoured by the terrible monster Amt (a lion with the head of a crocodile), the righteous came to life for a happy life in the fields of Iaru. Justified at the court of Osiris could only be humble and patient in earthly life, one that did not steal, did not encroach on temple property, did not rebel, did not speak evil against the king, etc., and also “pure in heart” (“ I'm clean, clean, clean"- claims the deceased in court).
Agricultural myths.
The third main cycle of myths of Ancient Egypt is connected with Osiris. The cult of Osiris is associated with the spread of agriculture in Egypt. He is the god of the productive forces of nature (in the "Book of the Dead" he is called grain, in the "Pyramid Texts" - the god of the vine), withering and resurrecting vegetation. So, sowing was considered the funeral of grain - Osiris, the emergence of seedlings was perceived as his rebirth, and cutting ears during harvest - as the killing of a god. These functions of Osiris were reflected in the extremely common legend describing his death and rebirth. Osiris, who happily reigned in Egypt, was treacherously killed by his younger brother, the evil Seth. The sisters of Osiris, Isis (at the same time being his wife) and Nephthys, look for the body of the murdered man for a long time, and when they find it, they mourn. Isis conceives from the dead husband of the son of Horus. Having matured, Horus enters the fight against Set, at the court of the gods, with the help of Isis, he achieves recognition of himself as the only eligible heir of Osiris. Having defeated Set, Horus resurrects his father. However, Osiris, not wanting to remain on earth, becomes the king of the underworld and the supreme judge over the dead. The throne of Osiris on earth passes to Horus.
The myths associated with Osiris are reflected in numerous rituals. At the end of the last winter month "hoyak" - the beginning of the first month of spring "tibi", the mysteries of Osiris were performed, during which the main episodes of the myth about him were reproduced in dramatic form. The priestesses in the images of Isis and Nephthys depicted the search, mourning and burial of the god. Then there was a "great battle" between Horus and Seth. The drama ended with the erection of the “djed” pillar dedicated to Osiris, symbolizing the rebirth of God and, indirectly, of all nature. In the pre-dynastic period, the festival ended with a struggle between two groups of participants in the mysteries: one of them represented summer, and the other winter. Summer has always won (the resurrection of nature). After the unification of the country under the rule of the rulers of Upper Egypt, the nature of the mysteries changes. Now two groups are fighting, one of which is in the clothes of Upper Egypt, and the other is of Lower Egypt. The victory, of course, remains with the group symbolizing Upper Egypt. During the days of the mysteries of Osiris, the dramatized rites of the coronation of the pharaohs also celebrated. During the mystery, the young pharaoh acted as Horus, the son of Isis, and the deceased king was portrayed as Osiris sitting on the throne.
The character of Osiris as the god of vegetation was reflected in another cycle of rites. In a special room of the temple, a likeness of the figure of Osiris made of clay was erected, which was sown with grain. By the feast of Osiris, his image was covered with green shoots, which symbolized the rebirth of the god. In the drawings, the mummy of Osiris is often found with seedlings sprouting from it, which the priest waters.
The idea of ​​Osiris as a god of fertility was also transferred to the pharaoh, who was considered the magical center of the country's fertility and therefore participated in all the main agricultural rites: with the onset of the rise of the Nile, he threw a scroll into the river - a decree that the beginning of the spill had come; the first solemnly began preparing the soil for sowing; he cut the first sheaf at the harvest festival, for the whole country he made a thanksgiving sacrifice to the goddess Renenutet 7 and the statues of the dead pharaohs after the completion of field work.
A bright trace in Egyptian mythology was left by the cult of animals, widespread in all periods of Egyptian history. Gods in the form of animals, with the heads of birds and beasts, scorpion gods, serpent gods act in Egyptian myths along with deities in human form. The more powerful the god was considered, the more cult animals were attributed to him, in the guise of which he could appear before people.
The Egyptian myths reflect the peculiarities of the worldview of the inhabitants of the Nile Valley, their ideas about the origin of the world and its structure, which have developed over thousands of years and have their roots in primitive times. Here are attempts to find the origins of being in the biological act of the creation of the gods, the search for the original substance personified by divine couples - the embryo of later teachings about the primary elements of the world, and, finally, as one of the highest achievements of Egyptian theological thought - the desire to explain the origin of the world, people and all culture as a result of the creative power embodied in the word of God.

1.2 Ancient Egyptian "Book of the Dead"

Ancient Egyptian Book of the Deada collection of spells that the Egyptians (during the New Kingdom and later) placed in tombs so that the dead could safely overcome the dangers of the other world and gain enlightened immortality. The current Egyptians used this term to designate papyrus scrolls with mysterious writings and drawings that they found along with the mummies of their distant ancestors, without extending it in any way to the content of the text, which they, of course, did not know.
The original title of The Book of the Dead was "Er nu peret em heru" 8 . It reflects the main essence of this wonderful text: to help the deceased pass all the dangers of the afterlife, pass the posthumous judgment and, together with the solar barge of the god Ra, return to earth again, that is, come to life, resurrect - "renew", as the Egyptians said. To conquer death in order to lead a spiritual and sensual existence later in a rejuvenated, beautiful, ageless body on an eternally beautiful fertile land surrounded by one's relatives and friends. This is a book about overcoming death, about defeating it, and at the same time about how to do it.
The history of the "Book of the Dead" dates back to infinitely distant times, when the primitive religious ideas of the ancient inhabitants of the Nile Valley began to take shape in an increasingly complex cult of local gods and a funeral ritual that took shape in its main features. Apparently, even before the unification of Egypt into one state, in the pre-literate period, a collection of funeral formulas began to take shape, much later, under the pharaohs of the V-VIth dynasties (c. 2355 BC), inscribed on the walls of burial chambers is already very modest but the size of the royal pyramids (the famous grandiose pyramids in Giza are "silent"). The first time this happened under Pharaoh Unis, already at the end of the Old Kingdom.
These inscriptions were discovered at the end of the last century by the outstanding French Egyptologist G. Maspero and called them "Pyramid Texts". This work, apparently, was a record of a funeral ritual and concerned exclusively the royal person, which, of course, does not mean that all other inhabitants of Egypt did not have any ideas about posthumous existence at all. However, in the tombs of the necropolises of the Old Kingdom, there are no texts concerning the posthumous residence of the "simple" dead. So, speaking about the era of the Old Kingdom, we can only judge the posthumous existence of the pharaoh, who was expected to stand before the gods and join their host. After death, he flew up to the sky and there, in the endless starry space, he sailed together with the sun god Ra in the “Boat of Millions of Years”. “Your wings grow like a falcon, you are broad-chested like a hawk, which is looked at in the evening after it has crossed the sky”; “The flying one flies. He flew away from you, people, because he does not belong to the Earth, he belongs to the sky ... "
With the completion of the Old Kingdom, at the end of the third millennium BC. e., funerary literature undergoes significant changes. Now not only the pharaoh had funeral texts, going to the kingdom of the gods: a similar fate awaited everyone. Already during the last dynasties of the Old Kingdom, the Pyramid Texts began to leave the burial chambers of all Egyptian rulers and appeared on the inner and outer walls of the rectangular wooden sarcophagi of their subjects. In many ways, these are the same "Texts of the Pyramids", but nevertheless they are already so different from them that they clearly represent a new stage in the development of funeral literature. In the "Texts of the Sarcophagi" (as they are called in the scientific literature), the solar cult associated with the deified pharaoh is intertwined with the chthonic (earthly); the afterlife is located in a very special place in the space of the universe, where every night Ra goes with his retinue to fight the forces of darkness. Here, as in the Pyramid Texts, there are many magical formulas and spells, references to ancient myths (already more related to Osiris) and liturgical recitatives. All this is divided into separate "sayings", or chapters, which have their own names, many of which later entered the "Book of the Dead". On the sarcophagi of the XIIth Dynasty (c. 1991 BC), another text appears, dedicated to afterlife wanderings and related in language to the era of the Old Kingdom. This is the famous "Book of Two Ways", created in order to ease the way for the deceased to the Fields of Hotep (Fields of the World) fields of eternal bliss, where wheat is the height of a man, where there are no crop failures and hunger, where the dead are in endless bliss under the shadow of Naunet- the mysterious sky of the underworld.
It is in The Book of Two Ways that the text-illustrating images that are so important in the Book of the Dead first appear. B. A. Turaev writes about the “Book of Two Ways” as follows: “This is an illustrated vade mecum of the deceased, facilitating his journey on land and water of the afterlife and consisting of a map of the latter and texts that fall into 16 “chapters” (collection of “sayings ”) in three groups. The first group begins with an appeal to some deity, who gives a pass to travel through the necropolis of Sokar Ra-Setau, where the deceased eases the suffering of Osiris, who is then glorified. The wanderer then speaks of his victory over the enemy, whom he holds in his claws like a lion. It all ends with the words: “This book was under the sandals of Thoth. The end of it..." The second group speaks of the pilgrimage of the deceased to various Egyptian shrines, apparently transferred to another world. He goes to Heliopolis, and to Buto, and to the "House of Life of Abydos", and "to the pure land of the Nile"; everywhere he sees local shrines and sights. The third group actually presents The Book of Two Ways. After depicting the doors to these paths, a map is given, divided in full length by a red stripe depicting the “sea of ​​fire”: above it are “water routes”, below are land routes. The former lead first along the fiery lake; the text warns at the crossroads by the fiery sea: "do not go to him." On land, the soul passes through dams guarded by guards, in front of which one has to read the "saying of passage" or impersonate gods for free passage. As can be seen from the above description, reaching the places of eternal bliss was not easy, and sometimes deadly, and became almost impossible without an accurate knowledge of the topography of the afterlife and a “face-to-face” representation of its inhabitants. Without an accurate map and a detailed image, it was impossible to travel along the two paths of the realm of the dead. From now on, funeral literature began to be accompanied by drawings that facilitated this risky journey and eventually became an independent type of Egyptian graphics - an integral part of the papyri of the Book of the Dead.
With the end of the Middle Kingdom, a new period in the development of religious literature begins. At this time, the funeral texts written on papyrus become the property of almost all strata of the population. As in the previous era, the main collection of funerary texts is being formed, replacing the "Texts of the Sarcophagi" of the Middle Kingdom. Already at its very end, the first papyrus scrolls appear, and from the 18th dynasty (c. 1552 BC) they spread everywhere. “From this time onwards, ... the religious texts concerning the underworld were collected together and written down in the form we now know as the Book of the Dead, and every Egyptian who was wealthy enough to afford to pay the scribe even for the most incomplete list of sacred texts, took with him to the grave a papyrus scroll, which might be a short passage, containing no more than the most necessary chapters, or might be an imposing work, reaching a hundred feet or more in length, and containing all the precautions that the wisdom of the Egyptian the scribe knew against the dangers of the dark world of the Duat. This is why nine out of every ten Egyptian papyri are funerary papyri, and why nine out of every ten funerary papyri are copies of what we know as the Book of the Dead, while others are copies of later versions and abbreviations of this basic book, the Book of Gates. "The Book of Breathing", "The Book of Knowledge of What is in the Underworld", and so on" 9 . Of course, the manufacture of papyrus scrolls required much less time and money than the painting of bulky wooden boxes. It should also be remembered that in the era of the New Kingdom, anthropoid sarcophagi became widespread, repeating the shape of the human body and unsuitable for placing long inscriptions. The new papyrus collection was produced almost “on the fly” leaving free space for the name of the buyer. This is how the vast majority of the scrolls are made.
The "Book of the Dead" was, as it were, the result of the entire long development of Egyptian religious literature. This, the third stage of its existence, corresponding to the era of the New Kingdom (1580-1085 BC), shows what a difficult path theological thought has traveled over many hundreds of years. The main object of the funeral cult is Osiris - the chthonic deity, the Good God, the wise lord of the kingdom of the dead, the underground sun, administering the posthumous judgment and restoring justice, whose house is located right on the Fields of Ialu (Fields of Reeds), where the deceased work.
Like so many other peoples, the Egyptians were sure that some events in the other world could be influenced from here. It is possible, for example, to somehow influence the fate of the deceased or influence the higher forces acting "from there." For these purposes, they resorted to magic.
The magic of the ancient Egyptians is one of the most attractive phenomena for modern admirers of mysticism and the secret knowledge of antiquity, but in fact it is very close to the actions performed by shamans, whose activity is mainly aimed at influencing the otherworldly forces of another world.
Now - about the text itself. The "Book of the Dead" is a collection of sayings of various purposes, often conventionally referred to as chapters in literature. They can be divided into three categories: prayers and hymns to various gods, magic spells and records of the funeral ritual (explanations on how to set up a burial bed, how to furnish a burial chamber, etc.). The order and number of sayings in different lists were different. And, not the last role here was played by the solvency of the customer. The total number of sayings found in different copies of the Book of the Dead is 193, but in fact, a complete collection of chapters, apparently, did not exist. There was also a text called "Peret em heru in one chapter", which, if necessary, could replace all the others.
The current numbering of the chapters was proposed by the German Egyptologist of the last century R. Lepsius on the basis of a copy of the Book of the Dead published by him of a rather late, Ptolemaic era (305-30 BC), when the order of sayings was already unified. Although the vast majority of sayings have titles, they do not always correspond to the content of the text itself; First of all, this applies to spells. It is difficult to talk about the logical structure of each scroll, but if we consider the entire collection as a whole, then it becomes more noticeable.
The contents of the "Book of the Dead" can be divided into four parts (as the French Egyptologist A. Moret did): 1) Chapters 1-16. procession of the funeral procession to the necropolis; prayers for "going out into the day"; hymns to the sun and Osiris. 2) Chapters 17-63: "going out into the day" and the resurrection of the dead; his victory over the forces of darkness; impotence of enemies; the power of the deceased over the elements. 3) Chapters 64-129: "going out into the day" - the transformation of the deceased into a deity; his introduction to the solar boat: the knowledge of various sacraments; aversion to the tomb; afterlife court. 4) Chapters 130-162: glorification of the deceased - texts intended to be read throughout the year (on certain holidays, on the days of offering gifts to the deceased) and aimed at protecting the mummy. This is the content of Peret em Heru itself; before the 63rd chapter is the title: “Brought in from another book in addition -“ Peret em heru ”, and then 30 more chapters follow.
The drawings placed together with the text played a colossal role: the first example of a book illustration in history. So the content received not only verbal, but also pictorial expression.
The nature of Egyptian picture writing is such that the images on the pages of the Book of the Dead were not only viewed by the Egyptians, but were read in much the same way as the text. In this respect, the illustrations for the collection were more informative for contemporaries than for us.

Chapter 2. Magic in Ancient Egypt.

“Magic” among the Egyptians existed in two varieties: on the one hand, it was used legally for the benefit of the living and the dead, on the other hand, it was an instrument of secret conspiracies and was designed to harm those against whom it was used. There is no doubt that the main purpose of magical books and ceremonies was to benefit those who had acquired sufficient knowledge. Unfortunately, the foreigners who visited Egypt did not understand its customs, as a result of which a misinterpretation of the religion of the Egyptians and an exaggerated opinion of their capabilities were spread among the neighboring peoples. The magical ceremonies performed at burials seemed to the ignorant to be either stupid superstitions or methods of "black" magic.
If the magic of any people of the Ancient East was directed against the forces of darkness and the people who used it sought to counteract their cruel plans by attracting a number of benevolent creatures to their side, then the Egyptians sought to gain power over their gods and be able to call them on to your desire. Such grandiose results were achieved with the help of certain words, which, in order to have an effect, had to be pronounced in a special way by a specially trained person. It was also possible to write them on some material - papyrus, precious stone and similar things that a person wore on himself, if, of course, the effect of these words could be transmitted over a distance. Such amulets or talismans in Egypt were worn by almost everyone who could afford it (whether a man, woman or child), so it is not surprising that the Egyptians from ancient times were considered a people of magicians and sorcerers. Jewish, Greek and Roman authors speak of them as experts in the occult sciences and lords of forces, which, depending on the circumstances, can be used for the benefit or harm of a person.
Having reached a high level of development of crafts, the Egyptians were very skilled also in literary compositions and in the production of books, especially those that were associated with ceremonies performed for the benefit of the dead.
Now we will briefly consider the main means used by the Egyptians to perform magical actions: stones, amulets, figurines, images, formulas, names, ceremonies, and so on.

2.1 Magic stones and amulets.

We call amulets various items, jewelry and clothing items that were used by the Egyptians, and later by other peoples, to protect the body of a living or deceased person from death.
etc.................

Sometimes Egypt is called the most religious culture in the history of mankind, and this statement has sufficient grounds. In any traditional society, religious and mythological systems are meaningful, largely determining the specifics of civilization and the originality of culture, but in Egypt the religious system was distinguished by its special integrity and immutability, as well as the important social role played by the priesthood.

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The mythological system of Egypt can be described as polytheistic, since it included the cults of many gods (circa 2000). The gods were local and general, most of the gods had their own city, where the main temple was located. With the strengthening of certain Egyptian centers, the transfer of capitals, the places of the gods in the hierarchy changed. The supreme god was the god Ra - the god of the Sun. All cosmogonic myths are connected with him, he acted as a demiurge - the creator and ruler of the world. The sun among the Egyptians had many names and forms, but the main one was the god Ra. At the same time, there were ideas about the goddess of Heaven - Nut, who gives birth to the sun in the morning, and swallows it in the evening - and night comes. The multivariate explanation of one and the same natural phenomenon (the myth of the god Ra, in a golden boat sailing along the heavenly Nile, has already been mentioned) is a characteristic feature of mythological consciousness in general, and Egyptian mythology in particular. Some gods and goddesses personified natural elements or phenomena, many had the appearance of animals and birds. Most of the gods and goddesses were related by kinship. God Osiris belongs to the type of cultural heroes: according to the myths, he was the first pharaoh of Egypt, taught people agriculture and cattle breeding, gave them wine and cereals. In the era of the Middle Kingdom, the cult of Osiris became the central link in funeral beliefs, he was revered primarily as the god of the dead. Egyptian beliefs include a very complex system of myths, not amenable to logical ordering, since it was a system of figurative thinking. The most famous is the myth of Osiris and Isis, retold in detail by the Roman historian Plutarch. According to the myth, Osiris was an exemplary ruler, but his brother Seth, jealous of him, tricked Osiris into a magnificent sarcophagus and killed him. The wife of Osiris, Isis, goes in search of the body of Osiris and, with the help of Anubis, brings him back to life.

The son of Osiris and Isis Horus becomes the ruler of Egypt, and Osiris rules in the Kingdom of the Dead.

In the era of the Old Kingdom, it was believed that only the pharaoh, thanks to a magical funeral rite, could come to life after death, just as Osiris came to life. In the era of the Middle Kingdom, every dead Egyptian is identified with Osiris. It was assumed that with strict observance of the funeral ritual, each Egyptian, like Osiris, would be able to be reborn for an eternal afterlife.

The goddess Isis, sister and wife of Osiris, was the goddess of fertility and navigation, a symbol of femininity, family fidelity and motherhood. Isis gained particular popularity in the Greco-Roman world. The cult of Isis influenced Christian dogma and art. The image of the Mother of God with the baby in her arms goes back to the image of Isis and her son Horus. The myth of Osiris refers to the myths of the dying and resurrecting god or calendar myth (because it was supposed to be related to seasonal changes in nature). Researchers working within the framework of the psychological approach in mythology (the so-called transpersonal psychologists) believe that in myths about a dying and resurrecting god, religious experience reflects the unconscious mental experiences of a child in the womb and during childbirth, thus this type of myth does not reflect the regularity of natural changes, but is, in their opinion, a special form of psychotherapy, removing and healing mental trauma.

The god Thoth also belongs to the type of cultural heroes - the god of wisdom and knowledge, time calculation, the god - the patron of the priesthood.

Zoomorphic (animal-like features) can be traced in the image of many Egyptian gods. A characteristic feature of Egyptian mythology was the deification of animals as the embodiment of various deities. Such animals as a bull (Apis), a cat (Bast), a crocodile (Sebek), a lioness (Tefnut), a jackal (Anubis) were revered. zoomorphic

features in the appearance of deities were preserved in mythology, combined with anthropomorphic ones. So, for example, the god Horus, the son of Osiris and Isis, was depicted with the head of a falcon, and the god Thoth was depicted with the head of a baboon or an ibis bird.

Textbook=HISTORY OF WORLD CULTURE-(World Civilizations)=Managing Editor I. Zhilyakov

Yanko Slava(Library Fort/Da) || [email protected] || http://yanko.lib.ru

The funeral cult played a huge role in Egyptian mythology: the afterlife was presented as a direct continuation of the earthly life, a necessary condition was the preservation of the body of the deceased (in connection with which the rite of mummification spread), the construction of dwellings (pyramids and tombs), the sacrifice of gifts as food. The Egyptians considered death not so much as a transition to a better life in another world (a position to which Christianity accustomed us), but as a continuation of life on earth. In the ancient Egyptian papyri, modern researchers find the principles of the ethics of hedonism (ethics of pleasure). Life, its value and originality, beauty and happiness were so valued that they were supposed to live in the afterlife, where people continue to live as on earth.

The ancient religions of Egypt have always been inseparable from the mythology and mysticism inherent in this part of the globe. It was thanks to the ancient Egyptian myths and legends that paganism in Russia was further formed. Also, echoes of this culture can be observed in modern Judaism, Islam, Christianity. Many images and legends spread throughout the globe and eventually became part of the modern world. Assumptions and hypotheses regarding Egyptian culture and religion are still tormenting scientists around the world, desperately trying to unravel the mysteries of this amazing country.

The religion of ancient Egypt is diverse. It combines several areas, such as:

• Fetishism. Represents the worship of inanimate objects or materials, which are attributed to mystical properties. It can be amulets, paintings or other things.
• Monotheism. It is based on the belief in one god, but at the same time allows the existence of other supernatural forms or several divine faces that are the image of the same character. Such a god may appear in different guises, but his essence remains unchanged.
• Polytheism. A belief system based on polytheism. In polytheism, there are whole pantheons of divine creatures, each of which is responsible for a separate topic.
• totemism. Very common in ancient Egypt. The essence of this trend is the worship of totems. Most often, these are animals that are presented with gifts in order to appease the gods through them and ask them for a happy life or peace in another world.

All these directions were formed over more than 3 thousand years, and, of course, over such a long period, the religion of ancient Egypt has experienced many changes. For example, some gods, who were in the last place in their importance, gradually became the main ones, and vice versa. Some symbols merged and turned into completely new elements.

A separate part is occupied by legends and beliefs concerning the afterlife. Due to this versatility, various branches and constantly changing rites, there was no single state religion in Egypt. Each group of people chose a separate direction or deity, which they later began to worship. Perhaps this is the only belief that did not unite all the inhabitants of the country, and sometimes led to wars due to the fact that the priests of one commune did not share the views of another, worshiping other gods.

Magic in ancient Egypt

Magic was the basis of all directions and was practically presented to people as the religion of ancient Egypt. It is difficult to summarize all the mystical beliefs of the ancient Egyptians. On the one hand, magic was a tool and directed against enemies, on the other hand, it was used to protect animals and people.

amulets

The greatest importance was attached to all kinds of amulets, which were endowed with extraordinary power. The Egyptians believed that such things could protect not only a living person, but also his soul after the transition to another world.

There were amulets on which the ancient priests wrote special magic formulas. Rites were taken especially seriously, during which spells were cast over amulets. It was also customary to put a sheet of papyrus with words addressed to the gods on the body of the deceased. Thus, the relatives of the deceased asked the higher powers for mercy and a better fate for the soul of the deceased.

Figurines of animals and people

The myths and religion of ancient Egypt include stories about all sorts of animal figurines. The Egyptians attached great importance to such amulets, since such things could not only bring good luck, but also help to curse the enemy. For these purposes, a figure of a person who needed to be punished was sculpted from wax. In the future, this direction was transformed into black magic. The Christian religion also has a similar custom, but on the contrary, it is aimed at healing. To do this, it is necessary to fashion a sick part of the human body from wax and bring it to the church to the icon of the saint, from whom relatives ask for help.

Along with amulets, great importance was attached to drawings and all kinds of spells. Initially, there was a tradition to bring food to the burial room and put it next to the mummy of the deceased in order to appease the gods.

After some time, when the food spoiled, the Egyptians brought fresh offerings, but in the end it all came down to the fact that next to the mummified body they placed an image of food and a scroll with certain spells. It was believed that after reading the cherished words over the deceased, the priest could convey a message to the gods and protect the soul of the deceased.

"Words of Power"

This spell was considered one of the most powerful. The ancient religions of Egypt attached particular importance to the pronunciation of sacred texts. Depending on the circumstances, the specified spell could produce a different effect. To do this, it was necessary to give the name of one or another creature that the priest wanted to call. The Egyptians believed that it was the knowledge of this name that was the key to everything. Remnants of such beliefs have survived to this day.

Akhenaten's coup

After the Hyksos (who influenced the ancient religions of Egypt) were expelled from Egypt, the country experienced a religious upheaval, the instigator of which was Akhenaten. It was at this time that the Egyptians began to believe in the existence of a single god.

Aten became the chosen god, but this belief did not take root due to its exalted character. Therefore, after the death of Akhenaten, there were very few worshipers of a single deity. This brief period of monotheism, however, left its mark on subsequent lines of Egyptian religion. According to one version, the Levites led by Moses were among those who believed in the god Aten. But due to the fact that it became unpopular in Egypt, the sect was forced to leave their native lands. During their journey, the followers of Moses united with the nomadic Jews and converted them to their faith. The ten commandments that are known today are strongly reminiscent of the lines of one of the chapters of the Book of the Dead, which is called "The Commandment of Denial." It lists 42 sins (one for each god, of which, according to one of the Egyptian religions, there were also 42).

At present, this is only a hypothesis that allows us to consider in more detail the features of the religion of ancient Egypt. There is no reliable evidence, but many experts are increasingly leaning towards this formulation. By the way, disputes about the fact that Christianity is based on Egyptian beliefs still do not fade away.

Egyptian religion in Rome

At the time when the mass spread of Christianity began, and Alexander the Great died, the Egyptian religion completely merged with ancient mythology. At a time when the old gods no longer met all the requirements of society, the cult of Isis appeared, which spread throughout the entire territory of the Roman Empire. Along with the new current, great interest began to appear in Egyptian magic, the influence of which by this time had already reached Britain, Germany and began to spread throughout Europe. It is difficult to say that it was the only religion of ancient Egypt. Briefly, you can imagine it as an intermediate step between paganism and the gradually emerging Christianity.

Pyramids of Egypt

These buildings have always been shrouded in hundreds of legends and beliefs. Until now, scientists are trying to unravel the mystery of how any organic objects are mummified in the pyramids. Even small animals that died in these buildings are preserved for a very long time without embalming. Some people claim that after spending some time in the ancient pyramids, they experienced a surge of energy, and even got rid of some chronic diseases.

The culture and religion of ancient Egypt are closely connected with these extraordinary buildings. This is understandable, since the pyramids have always been a symbol of all Egyptians, regardless of which religious direction was chosen by one or another group of people. Until now, tourists who come on excursions to the pyramids claim that in these places blunt razor blades become sharp if they are correctly placed, focusing on the cardinal points. Moreover, there is an opinion that it is not so important what material the pyramid is made of and where it is located, it can even be made of cardboard, and it will still have unusual properties. The main thing is to keep the right proportions.

Religion and art of ancient Egypt

The art of the country has always been closely associated with the religious preferences of the Egyptians. Since any image and sculpture had a mystical connotation, there were special canons according to which such creations were created.

Huge temples were erected in honor of the gods, and their images were imprinted in stone or precious materials. God Horus was depicted as a falcon or a man with a falcon's head, thus symbolizing wisdom, justice and writing. The guide of the dead, Anubis, was depicted as a jackal, and the goddess of war, Sekhmet, always appeared in the form of a lioness.

Unlike Eastern cultures, the ancient religions of Egypt presented deities not as frightening and punishing avengers, but, on the contrary, as majestic and all-understanding gods. Pharaohs and kings were representatives of the rulers of the world and were revered no less, therefore they were also drawn in the form of animals. It was believed that the image of a person is his invisible double, which was called "Ka" and was always presented as a young man, regardless of the age of the Egyptian himself.

Each statue and painting had to be signed by their creator. An unsigned creation was considered unfinished.

The religion and mythology of ancient Egypt pay great attention to the organs of vision of man and animal. Since then, it has been believed that it is the eyes that are the mirror of the soul. The Egyptians believed that the dead were completely blind, which is why so much attention was paid to vision. According to Egyptian myth, when the god Osiris was treacherously killed by his own brother, his son Horus cut out his eye and gave it to his father to swallow, after which he was resurrected.

Deified animals

Egypt is a country with a rather poor fauna, however, the ancient Egyptians honored nature and representatives of flora and fauna.

They worshiped a black bull, which was a divine creature - Apis. Therefore, in the temple of the animal there was always a live bull. The townspeople worshiped him. As the famous Egyptologist Mikhail Alexandrovich Korostovtsev wrote, the religion of ancient Egypt is quite extensive, it sees symbolism in many things. One of these was the cult of the crocodile, which personified the god Sebek. Just as in the temples of Apis, in the places of worship of Sebek there were always live crocodiles, which were fed only by the priests. After the death of animals, their bodies were mummified (they were treated with the highest respect and reverence).

Also held in high esteem were falcons and kites. For the murder of these winged ones, one could pay with one's life.

Cats occupy a separate place in the history of Egyptian religion. The most important god Ra was always presented in the form of a huge cat. There was also the goddess Bastet, who appeared in the form of a cat. The death of this animal was marked by mourning, and the body of the four-legged was taken to the priests, who cast spells over them and embalmed him. Killing a cat was considered a huge sin, followed by a terrible retribution. In the event of a fire, the cat was rescued from the burning house first, and only then the family members.

Considering ancient Egyptian mythology, it is impossible not to mention the scarab beetle. This amazing insect plays a huge role in the religion of ancient Egypt. The summary of the most famous myth about him is that this particular beetle personifies life and self-rebirth.

The concept of the soul in ancient Egypt

The Egyptians divided the human being into several systems. As mentioned earlier, each person had a particle "Ka", which was his double. An additional coffin was placed in the burial room of the deceased, in which this very part was supposed to rest.

The “Ba” particle represented the very soul of a person. At first, it was believed that only the gods possessed this component.

"Ah" - the spirit, was depicted in the form of an ibis and represented a separate part of the soul.

"Shu" means shadow. The essence of the human soul, which is hidden on the dark side of consciousness.

There was also a part of "Sakh", which personified the body of the deceased after his mummification. A separate place was occupied by the heart, since it was the receptacle of the entire human consciousness as a whole. The Egyptians believed that during the afterlife, a terrible judgment, a person could keep silent about his sins, but the heart always revealed the most terrible secrets.

Conclusion

It is rather difficult to list all the ancient religions of Egypt in a short and accessible way, since over such a long time they have undergone a lot of changes. One thing can definitely be said for sure: the mysterious Egyptian history contains a huge amount of the most unusual and mystical secrets. Annual excavations bring incredible surprises and raise more and more questions. To this day, scientists and people who are simply interested in history find unusual symbols and evidence that it was this religion that formed the basis of all the beliefs that exist today.

The Egyptians worshiped numerous deities. In one of the articles of the international treaty between Ramesses II and the Hittite king, a thousand gods and goddesses of Ancient Egypt are mentioned. The gods were divided into local deities, revered in every nome and every large village, and common Egyptian gods, revered throughout the country.

The most revered supreme deities were: the sun god Ra, wandering in a heavenly boat across the daytime sky, with a center in the city of Heliopolis; the creator god Ptah, according to whose word the gods and the whole world were created, the center of his cult was the city of Memphis. With the advent of Thebes, the god Amon includes a number of functions of the god Ra and becomes one of the most important gods of Egypt. Amon-Ra was considered the creator of the world, the patron of royal power, the military might of Egypt.

A popular deity of the ancient Egyptian pantheon was also Osiris, personifying the dying and resurrecting nature, the lord of the underworld, the patron of royal power. His sister and wife Isis was understood as a mother goddess, the patroness of conjugal love and motherhood. The son of Osiris and Isis, the god Horus personified the sky and light, was considered the protector of the pharaoh, his earthly incarnation. The god of wisdom and account was Thoth, the goddess Sokhmet embodied powerful power, the goddess Hathor was considered the goddess of heaven, love and fun. The Nile was revered under the name of Hapi.

In the Egyptian pantheon, deities were represented who personified abstract concepts, for example, the god of knowledge Sia, the goddess of justice and justice Maat.

Despite all efforts to streamline and bring numerous gods into a coherent system, it was not possible to do this to the end: there was no unity in understanding the origin of the world, in coordinating the functions of different gods, their nature until the end of the existence of Ancient Egypt.

The cult of the reigning pharaoh played a special role. According to the teachings of the priests, the pharaoh was considered the incarnation of a deity in human form, a god-man, that is, he had a dual nature - human and divine. His birth was the result of the sacred marriage of a god-father, such as Ra, Amon-Ra, and the earthly mother of the pharaoh. On earth, the pharaoh-god ruled as the incarnation of Horus, but after death, the pharaoh became only a god and was identified with Osiris as the ruler of the underworld. Like any deity, the pharaoh, both reigning and deceased, had his own cult: temples, a staff of priests, sacrifices, etc. The symbolic personification of the divine nature of the pharaoh was the sphinx, depicted as a calmly lying mighty lion with a human head, which was given a portrait resemblance with the pharaoh. The deification of the pharaoh, on the one hand, reflected the enormous power of the monarch as the unlimited head of the Egyptian state, on the other hand, sanctified and strengthened this power in the interests of the ruling class.

According to the ideas of the ancient Egyptians, their gods were omnipotent and formidable. They created humans for only one purpose: to make them serve themselves. If people forgot about this, severe punishment awaited them. Divine Providence also determined the fate of people. In order to ensure the favor of the gods, they had to zealously serve them, take care of their maintenance. Temples were built to honor the gods, their statues were created, a whole staff of priests kept sacrificial animals and made sacrifices. Solemn festivities were held in honor of the gods, consisting of a number of ceremonies, and above all of plentiful sacrifices of specially selected animals. Then the image of the deity was removed from the place of its permanent storage, placed on a miniature sacred barge, taken out of the temple and transferred to the temple of the divine wife of this god or his son, sometimes the statue was sent along the Nile on sacred cult ships to another city. The processions were accompanied by the singing of hymns performed by specially trained women's choirs. For example, the inscriptions mention the singers of Amun, who occupied a prominent place in the priestly hierarchy.

Compilation, rehearsal and performance of religious hymns was considered the most important work of the priests and contributed to the development of religious poetry, as well as stories about the deeds of the gods - the development of Egyptian literature.

The mortuary cult occupied an important place in the Egyptian religion. Its basis was the understanding formed by the Egyptians of the essence of nature and the purpose of man, which predetermine his life. According to these ideas, each person is a synthesis of three basic substances: his physical body, his spiritual counterpart (the Egyptians designated him by the term "ka") and his soul ("ba"). Only the joint existence of these three substances can bestow immortality, i.e., posthumous existence. And if so, then the problem of preserving the body, protecting it from physical destruction arises. Hence, the custom of mummification of the dead and the burial of the mummy in the tomb acquired great importance. Posthumous existence was perceived as a continuation of ordinary life on earth: a nobleman remains a nobleman, an artisan - an artisan, etc. The walls of the tombs were painted with scenes of earthly life and life, starting from plowing the fields and ending with feasts, in order to magically transfer all these actions to the afterlife. To perform the necessary work in the afterlife, specially made figures of people were placed in the tomb - servants, workers, who were called "ushebti".

In contrast to Mesopotamia, Egypt was for the ancient world the true fortress of sacred science, the school for its most glorious prophets, the refuge and at the same time the laboratory of the noblest traditions of mankind.

The name of the country - "Egypt" comes from the name of the ancient Egyptian capital Hikupta (Het-Ka-Ptah - "House of Ka Ptah", Greek - Memphis). The Greeks, paraphrasing this word, called the whole of Egypt with the word "Aygyuptos". From this, in turn, the term migrated to all other European languages.

The Egyptians themselves called their country Kemet or Ta-kemet, which in Russian means “black” or “black earth”, or rather, “black earth”, in honor of the fertile black earth, which Egypt was famous for in all its eras.

The traditions of healing in ancient Egypt developed in close cooperation with the medicine of ancient Mesopotamia. They had a great influence on the development of ancient Greek medicine, which is considered the forerunner of modern scientific medicine.

The population of Ancient Egypt was formed gradually from the local tribes of North and East Africa. Thus, the ancient Egyptian culture is of African origin. Its characteristic features - hieroglyphic writing, religious representations, the cult of the dead, a characteristic artistic style - originated before 3000 BC.

According to mythological notions The main deity of the ancient Egyptians was the sun god Ra.

Among the main deities of Ancient Egypt, who were related to healing, was the god Dzhehuti (Greek: Thoth).

He was revered as the inventor of hieroglyphic writing and medicine, the patron of knowledge, scribes and sages. According to legend, Thoth divided mankind into languages, invented mathematics and astronomy, the calendar and religious rites, music and healing by natural means; he was also credited with compiling the most ancient Egyptian medical texts.

The lord of the underworld Usiri (Greek Osiris) was revered as the god of dying and resurrecting nature.

The goddess Isis was revered as the guardian of royal power, the patroness of children and the inventor of magical healing.

The cult of animals occupied a significant place in the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians. Each nome (city-state) had its own sacred animal or bird: a bull, a cat, a crocodile, a ram, a lion, a falcon, an ibis, a kite, etc.

The deceased cult animal was embalmed and buried with full honors.

Killing a sacred animal was punishable by death.

In addition to the main deities, in ancient Egyptian mythology there were also gods of healing. The patroness of healers is the mighty Sokhmet (powerful) - the formidable goddess of war, plague and solar heat.

The goddess of fertility Tauert was revered as the patroness of childbirth and motherhood. During childbirth, small figurines of the goddess Tawert were always placed next to the woman in labor and the newborn, whether it was the heir of the great pharaoh or a simple Egyptian.

Thus, ancient Egyptian healing was associated with religious beliefs and cults.

A striking feature of the Egyptian religion was funeral cult which arose in the predynastic period. It is the key to understanding the entire ancient Egyptian culture.

The inhabitants of Ancient Egypt believed in the afterlife and considered it an endless continuation of the earthly one. According to them, the immortality of a person in the afterlife is granted through the unity (co-existence) of the three substances of a person: his physical body, his soul (“ba”) and his spiritual counterpart (“ka”).

Both afterlife substances ("ba" and "ka") are associated with the body of the deceased and live in the place of his burial. From this arose the desire to preserve the body from destruction. To do this, the people of Egypt since the pre-dynastic period buried the dead in the "red earth" of the deserts adjacent to the Nile Valley. The air and soil of Egypt have excellent preservative properties. The development of civilization led to the construction of special enclosed spaces for the burial of noble dead (mastabas, later pyramids). There was no sun, and special artificial methods were required to preserve the body. This is how mummification or embalming of the dead from the Greek balsamon - balm).

Mummification in ancient Egypt, special people were engaged, whom the Greeks called tariheuts. The method of embalming was kept secret. The bodies of the dead, processed thousands of years ago, have survived to this day. The best description of the mummification process was left by the ancient Greeks - Herodotus (about 484-425 BC) and Diodorus (about 90-21 BC).

Development of medical knowledge was an integral part of the vibrant and unique culture of ancient Egypt. It arose from the practical experience of the people and at the same time was closely intertwined with the mythological views of the ancient Egyptians.

First ideas about the structure of the human body (anatomy) the Egyptians received from the practice of embalming, which also testified to the high achievements in the field of chemistry.

The knowledge of the ancient Egyptians in the field of body structure was deep enough for its time and is comparable only with the achievements of the ancient Indians.

Already in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. the ancient Egyptians described large organs: the brain, heart, blood vessels, kidneys, intestines, muscles, etc. However, they did not subject them to special study, which is connected, in all likelihood, with religious beliefs. The Egyptians own the first description of the brain that has come down to us. It is given in the papyrus of E. Smith. The ancient Egyptians noticed that damage to the brain caused paralysis of the limbs and thus laid the foundation for the natural sciences of the brain. They assigned a special role to the heart and blood vessels. They believed that the heart not only gives blood movement, but is also the seat of the soul and emotions.

At the same time in ancient Egypt there were the doctrine of "Pneuma" . “Pneuma” is an invisible and weightless energy substance, which, as the Egyptians believed, permeates the entire Universe and, together with air, enters the lungs of a person, then into the heart, from where it spreads through the vessels throughout the human body, filling it with life. Egyptian physicians called these vessels or channels “meta”, through which, under the influence of heart contractions, “Pneuma” distributed heat, breath, blood, mucus, nutrients, semen, urine, feces circulated.

According to the ideas of the ancient Egyptian doctors, the main thing was in the channels - "metu" to prevent "blockage", "overflow", "lack", etc.

At the same time, many recipes in the Ebers papyrus are accompanied by references to magic spells and conspiracies, which, as the Egyptians believed, on the one hand, enhanced the effect of medicines, and on the other hand, scared away evil spirits. For the same purpose, drugs often included unpleasant-tasting substances: parts of the tail of a mouse, discharge from the ears of a pig, excrement and urine of animals, etc.

A separate section of the Ebers Papyrus is devoted to cosmetics. It gives prescriptions for medicines to smooth wrinkles, remove moles, change skin color, color hair and eyebrows, increase hair growth, and even correct strabismus. The Egyptians wore wigs that were worn over short hair, which helped prevent lice. The wig replaced the headdress. The antiquity of these traditions gives grounds to consider Ancient Egypt home of cosmetics .

Today it is known that the causative agent of schistosomiasis spreads by water through the intermediate host - the mollusk. A targeted program to combat this disease has been carried out under the leadership of WHO - World Health Organization since 1958 at the suggestion of Egypt - a country whose population is still most affected by schistosomiasis.

In ancient Egypt, the oldest text that has come down to us was compiled about surgical treatment (surgery) - Large Surgical Papyrus of Edwin Smith (XVI century BC). It describes 48 cases of traumatic injuries of the bones of the skull, brain, cervical vertebrae, collarbones, forearm, chest and spinal column, as well as methods for their treatment without any elements of magic and mysticism. Presenting each traumatic case, the author of the Smith Papyrus gives it a name, describes the signs of damage, draws a conclusion and prescribes a treatment. Moreover, in the conclusion, the severity of each case and the possibility of its cure are determined: “This is a disease that I will cure” or “This is a disease that should be fought”, or “This disease is incurable”.

medical ethics Egypt of that time demanded that the healer, after examining the patient, openly inform him about the expected outcome of the treatment in one of three phrases: 1) “This is a disease that I can cure”; 2) “This is a disease that I may be able to cure”; 3) "It's a disease that I can't cure."

In cases where a cure seemed possible, the author of the papyrus gave clear recommendations to the healer on how he should act. They were aware of the so-called motor paralysis of the limbs with head injuries.

In the treatment of fractures, the ancient Egyptians used wooden splints (“tires”) and tight bandaging of the injured limb with a linen cloth soaked in resin. They treated wounds, performed ritual circumcision and castration of eunuchs.

In ancient Egypt, the profession of a dentist has long existed. They explained toothache and tooth decay (as in ancient Mesopotamia) by the presence of a "worm that grows in the tooth." Dental treatment was conservative. It consisted in applying medicinal pastes and solutions to a diseased tooth or gums, but did not stop the further development of the disease.

The ancient Egyptians attached great importance to the observance hygiene rules . Religious laws prescribed moderation in food and neatness in everyday life. Describing the customs of the Egyptians in the 5th century. BC, Herodotus testifies: “The Egyptians drink only from copper vessels, which are cleaned daily. The dress is linen, always freshly washed, and this is a matter of great concern to them. They cut their hair and wear wigs to avoid lice... for the sake of cleanliness, preferring to be neat rather than beautiful. Priests cut their hair all over their bodies every other day in order not to have any lice or any other filth on themselves while serving the gods. The clothes of the priests are only linen, and the shoes are made of papyrus. They bathe twice a day and twice a night.” Apparently, it was no coincidence that the ancient Greeks (Hellenes) considered the Egyptians the founders of “preventive” medicine.

To provide water in the houses of the townspeople, deep stone reservoirs - wells were built. In some cities, numerous clay pipes have been found that run underground. They could serve both for supplying water and for draining sewage. In the palaces of the pharaohs and the houses of the nobility, there were bathrooms and toilet rooms.

In the Ebers Papyrus gynecological section contains information about the recognition of the timing of pregnancy, the sex of the unborn child, as well as "a woman who can and cannot give birth." The Berlin and Cajun Papyri describe a simple way to determine the sex of an unborn child.

The medical art in Egypt was divided in such a way that each doctor cured only one disease: some treated the eyes, others the head, third teeth, fourth the stomach, fifth internal diseases.

Transfer of medical knowledge in ancient Egypt was closely associated with the teaching of complex hieroglyphic writing. The schools taught mathematics, architecture, sculpture, medicine, astronomy, as well as the secrets of cults and rituals. The students studied and copied ancient papyri, mastered the art of calligraphy and stylistics, learned the "rules of beautiful speech" (oratory). At the same time, medical knowledge continued to be passed on by inheritance - from father to son.

The activities of healers in ancient Egypt were subject to strict moral rules. Observing them, the healer did not risk anything even with an unsuccessful outcome of treatment. Violation of the rules was punishable, up to the death penalty.

In the ancient world, Egyptian healers enjoyed universal recognition. The rulers of many countries invited them to serve at the court.

Egypt had a huge impact on the development of culture and medicine of the peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe.