General history of architecture. Architectural styles in chronological order with examples and photos The main architectural styles of the countries of the ancient world

One of the world's most ancient civilizations, the Holy Roman Empire, gave humanity the greatest culture, which included not only a rich literary heritage, but also a stone chronicle. The people who inhabited this state have long ceased to exist, but thanks to the preserved architectural monuments, it is possible to recreate the way of life of the pagan Romans. On April 21, the day of the founding of the city on seven hills, I propose to look at 10 sights of Ancient Rome.

Roman forum

The area, located in the valley between the Palatine and Velia on the south side, the Capitol on the west, the Esquiline and the slopes of the Quirinal and Viminal, was a wetland during the pre-Roman period. Until the middle of the 8th century BC. e. this area was used for burials, and settlements were located on the nearby hills. The place was drained during the reign of King Tarquikia the Ancient, who turned it into the center of the political, religious and cultural life of the townspeople. It was here that the famous truce between the Romans and Sabines took place, elections to the Senate took place, judges sat and services were held.

From west to east, the sacred road of the empire runs through the entire Roman Forum - Via Appia, or Appian Way, along which there are many monuments from both ancient and medieval times. The Roman Forum contains the Temple of Saturn, the Temple of Vespasian and the Temple of Vesta.

The temple in honor of the god Saturn was erected around 489 BC, symbolizing the victory over the Etruscan kings from the Tarquin family. He died several times during fires, but was revived. The inscription on the frieze confirms that “The Senate and people of Rome restored what was destroyed by fire.” It was a majestic building, which was decorated with a statue of Saturn, it included the premises of the state treasury, an aerarium, where documents on state revenues and debts were kept. However, only a few columns of the Ionic order have survived to this day.

Construction of the Temple of Vespasian began by decision of the Senate in 79 AD. e. after the death of the emperor. This holy building was dedicated to the Flavians: Vespasian and his son Titus. Its length was 33 m, and its width extended to 22 m. Three 15-meter columns of the Corinthian order have survived to this day.

The Temple of Vesta is dedicated to the goddess of the hearth and was connected in ancient times to the House of the Vestals. The Holy Fire was constantly maintained in the inner room. Initially, he was guarded by the king’s daughters, then they were replaced by vestal priestesses, who also held services in honor of Vesta. This temple contained a cache of symbols of the empire. The building was round in shape, the territory of which was bordered by 20 Corinthian columns. Despite the fact that there was an outlet for smoke in the roof, fires often broke out in the temple. It was saved and reconstructed several times, but in 394 Emperor Theodosius ordered it to be closed. Gradually the building deteriorated and fell into disrepair.

Trajan's Column

A monument of ancient Roman architecture, erected in 113 AD. by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus in honor of the victories of Emperor Trajan over the Dacians. The marble column, hollow inside, rises 38 m above the ground. In the “body” of the structure there is a spiral staircase with 185 steps leading to an observation deck on the capital.

The column's trunk is spiraled 23 times by a 190 m long ribbon with reliefs depicting episodes of the war between Rome and Dacia. Initially, the monument was crowned with an eagle, later - with a statue of Trajan. And in the Middle Ages, the column began to be decorated with a statue of the Apostle Peter. At the base of the column there is a door leading to the hall where the golden urns with the ashes of Trajan and his wife Pompeii Plotina were placed. The relief tells the story of Trajan's two wars with the Dacians, the period being 101–102. AD separated from the battles of 105–106 by the figure of a winged Victoria inscribing the name of the winner on a shield surrounded by trophies. It also depicts the movement of the Romans, the construction of fortifications, river crossings, battles, and the details of the weapons and armor of both troops are drawn in great detail. In total, there are about 2,500 human figures on the 40-ton column. Trajan appears on it 59 times. In addition to Victory, the relief also contains other allegorical figures: the Danube in the image of a majestic old man, Night - a woman with her face covered with a veil, etc.

Pantheon

The Temple of All Gods was built in 126 AD. e. under Emperor Hadrian on the site of the previous Pantheon, erected two centuries earlier by Marcus Vipsanias Agrippa. The Latin inscription on the pediment reads: “M. AGRIPPA L F COS TERTIUM FECIT" - "Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, elected consul for the third time, erected this." Located in Piazza della Rotonda. The Pantheon is distinguished by classical clarity and integrity of the composition of the internal space, and the majesty of the artistic image. Devoid of external decorations, the cylindrical building is crowned with a dome covered with discreet carvings. The height from the floor to the opening in the vault exactly corresponds to the diameter of the base of the dome, presenting amazing proportionality to the eye. The weight of the dome is distributed over eight sections that make up a monolithic wall, between which there are niches that give the massive building a feeling of airiness. Thanks to the illusion of open space, it seems that the walls are not so thick and the dome is much lighter than in reality. A round hole in the vault of the temple lets in light, illuminating the rich decoration of the interior space. Everything has reached our days almost unchanged.

Coliseum

One of the most significant buildings of Ancient Rome. The huge amphitheater took eight years to build. It was an oval building, along the perimeter of the arena there were 80 large arches, with smaller ones on them. The arena is surrounded by a wall of 3 tiers, and the total number of large and small arches was 240. Each tier was decorated with columns made in different styles. The first is of the Doric order, the second is of the Ionic order, and the third is of the Corinthian order. In addition, sculptures made by the best Roman craftsmen were installed on the first two tiers.

The amphitheater building included galleries intended for spectators to relax, where noisy merchants sold various goods. The outside of the Colosseum was decorated with marble, and there were beautiful statues along its perimeter. There were 64 entrances to the room, which were located on different sides of the amphitheater.

Below were privileged seats for the nobles of Rome and the throne of the emperor. The floor of the arena, where not only gladiator fights took place, but also real naval battles, was wooden.

Nowadays, the Colosseum has lost two-thirds of its original mass, but even today it is a majestic structure, being a symbol of Rome. No wonder the saying goes: “As long as the Colosseum stands, Rome will stand; if the Colosseum disappears, Rome will disappear and with it the whole world.”

Triumphal Arch of Titus

The single-span marble arch, located on the Via Sacra, was built after the death of Emperor Titus to commemorate the capture of Jerusalem in 81 AD. Its height is 15.4 m, width - 13.5 m, span depth - 4.75 m, span width - 5.33 m. The arch is decorated with half-columns of the composite order, four figures of Victoria, bas-reliefs depicting Titus controlling the quadriga, victorious a procession with trophies, including the main shrine of the Jewish temple - the menorah.

Baths of Caracalla

The baths were built at the beginning of the 3rd century AD. under Marcus Aurelius, nicknamed Caracalla. The luxurious building was intended not only for the washing process, but also for a variety of leisure activities, including both sports and intellectual. There were four entrances to the “bath building”; through the two central ones they entered the covered halls. On both sides there were rooms for meetings, recitations, etc. Among the many different rooms located on the right and left intended for washing rooms, it should be noted two large open symmetrical courtyards surrounded on three sides by a colonnade, the floor of which was decorated with the famous mosaic with figures of athletes. The emperors not only covered the walls with marble, covered the floors with mosaics and erected magnificent columns: they systematically collected works of art here. In the Baths of Caracalla there once stood the Farnese bull, statues of Flora and Hercules, and the torso of Apollo Belvedere.

The visitor found here a club, a stadium, a recreation garden, and a house of culture. Everyone could choose what they liked: some, after washing themselves, sat down to chat with friends, went to watch wrestling and gymnastic exercises, and could exercise themselves; others wandered around the park, admired the statues, and sat in the library. People left with a supply of new strength, rested and renewed not only physically, but also morally. Despite such a gift of fate, the baths were destined to collapse.

Temples of Portunus and Hercules

These temples are located on the left bank of the Tiber on another ancient forum of the city - the Bull. In early Republican times, ships moored here and there was a brisk livestock trade, hence the name.

The Temple of Portuna was built in honor of the god of ports. The building has a rectangular shape, decorated with Ionic columns. The temple has been well preserved since around 872 AD. was converted into the Christian church of Santa Maria in Gradelis, and in the 5th century it was consecrated into the church of Santa Maria Aegitiana.

The Temple of Hercules has a monopter design - a round building without internal partitions. The structure dates back to the 2nd century BC. The temple has a diameter of 14.8 m, decorated with twelve Corinthian columns 10.6 m high. The structure rests on a tuff foundation. Previously, the temple had an architrave and a roof, which have not survived to this day. In 1132 AD. the temple became a place of Christian worship. The church was originally called Santo Stefano al Carose. In the 17th century, the newly consecrated temple began to be called Santa Maria del Sol.

Champ de Mars

“Campus Martius” was the name of the part of Rome located on the left bank of the Tiber, originally intended for military and gymnastic exercises. In the center of the field there was an altar in honor of the god of war. This part of the field remained vacant subsequently, while the remaining parts were built up.

Mausoleum of Hadrian

The architectural monument was designed as a tomb for the emperor and his family. The mausoleum was a square base (side length - 84 m), in which a cylinder (diameter - 64 m, height about 20 m) was installed, topped with an earth mound, the top of which was decorated with a sculptural composition: the emperor in the form of the Sun god, controlling a quadriga. Subsequently, this gigantic structure began to be used for military and strategic purposes. Centuries have modified its original appearance. The building acquired the Angel's courtyard, medieval halls, including the Hall of Justice, the apartments of the Pope, a prison, a library, the Hall of Treasures and the Secret Archive. From the terrace of the castle, above which the figure of an Angel rises, a magnificent view of the city opens.

Catacombs

The Catacombs of Rome are a network of ancient buildings that were used as burial places, mostly during the period of early Christianity. In total, Rome has more than 60 different catacombs (150-170 km long, about 750,000 burials), most of which are located underground along the Appian Way. According to one version, the labyrinths of underground passages arose on the site of ancient quarries; according to another, they formed on private land plots. In the Middle Ages, the custom of burying in catacombs disappeared, and they remained as evidence of the culture of Ancient Rome.

One of the oldest and greatest achievements of mankind is the birth of architecture, which can be attributed to the Paleolithic era. During this period of time, until approximately 12-10 thousand BC. e. man was formed as a rational being. It was during this period of development of human society that a space that was meaningful to people, which we now call architecture, was born. In fact, during this period, architecture was the conquest of natural space by giving it a new human meaning.

Henri de Lumlé (b. 1934, Marseille, France)

People united in clan communities, where women played the dominant role. This era of tribal society is called matriarchy. The form of management during this period can be defined as appropriating. Hunting, fishing, and gathering were the main ways of obtaining food for humans. Man was not yet constrained by either agriculture or animal husbandry, and therefore his dwelling in the Paleolithic era was chosen for a short time. Usually it was a cave, dugout or hut. In the Upper Paleolithic era, from 40 to 10 millennium BC. e., very interesting residential buildings appear. The French historian and archaeologist Henri de Lumle (Fig. 1.1) discovered the Grotto de Lazare in the cave (see.

dv. incl., ill. 1) in the vicinity of Nice there is a special type of housing. The cave was equipped with a hut, which rested on an interesting structure. The vertical beams of the racks were held on the ground using stones. Floor beams were laid on them, the other end resting on the ledges in the cave wall. Moreover, this structure of the hut did not adjoin closely to the wall of the cave, which saved it from water seeping along the cave wall. The frame of the hut was covered with animal skins. In addition, zoning of space appears for the first time in this very interesting living space. The hearth was located at the entrance to the cave, which protected the structure of the hut from a possible fire. Next, inside the hut there was a vestibule or canopy. Thus, we can say that the hut in the Grotto de Lazare cave is an example of the emergence of the first functional division of living space, and the structure of the supports is the primary post-beam system.

During the Neolithic era, the living conditions of human society changed. Climate warming led to the fact that it became more profitable for people to engage in agriculture, as a result of which the first permanent residential settlements and the first religious architectural structures appeared. Many interesting architectural religious ensembles of the Neolithic era have survived to this day. All these structures are divided into seven main architectural types. These are menhirs, dolmens and cromlechs, tauls, seids, cairns, trilithons. It should be noted that all these buildings of primitive times carry a certain religious sacred meaning.

Menhirs(rice. 1.2) - these are structures in the form of vertically standing pillars about 20 m high, with pointed or rounded upper ends; sometimes religious historians tend to see in menhirs a religious symbol of the ancient Celtic-Slavic cult of Rod and Rozhanitsa, the so-called phallic cult. Archaeologists believe that menhirs marked the burial places of ancestors of one kind or another and therefore were objects of religious worship (see color incl., ill. 2).

Menhir 9.5 m high. France

Mausoleum of the Gothic king Theodoric in Ravenna. VI century n. e.

Rice. 1.4

Dolmens- these are structures made up of several stones covered with one or two horizontal slabs (see color incl., ill. 3). This structure is a burial chamber. Dolmens carried a certain religious meaning and one can even say that the great Egyptian pyramids are the original heirs of dolmens, since even in the era of the Sumerian kingdom, adobe tombs began to appear, created for “the needs of leaders and kings.” Such tombs were created in the form of dolmen structures. These were huge structures, built in a circle from giant multi-ton stones, covered with carefully processed stone blocks. It should be noted that the last dolmen-type megalithic structure was erected in 532 AD. e. This building is the mausoleum of the Gothic king Theodoric the Great (Fig. 1.3). The Goths, who had before their eyes the greatest monuments of the Roman period, the same mausoleum of Galla Placidia, were never able to take advantage of this heritage, and Theodoric’s mausoleum is covered with a dome, which was created like a horizontal stone dolmen block.

(rice. 1.4) They are large stone circles made up of heavy blocks taller than a man. They can be found in almost all parts of Europe: from the Solovetsky Islands of the White Sea to Sardinia and from Spain to the Caspian coast. According to archaeologists, the largest number of cromlechs has survived in Great Britain; there are several hundred of them there. The most famous cromlech is the world famous Stonehenge near the city of Salisbury. Perhaps this is the most famous cromlech, which can be called the first architectural structure to undergo restoration at the end of the 15th century. However, the most impressive cromlech is a structure located 350 km from Stonehenge in the town of Arbor Low. Unlike Stonehenge, the Arbor Low cromlech is also surrounded by a large moat. This suggests that the cromlech at Arbor Low was not only a religious structure, but also a defensive one.

Taula(Catalan taula - lit., “table”) - a type of T-shaped megalith, characteristic of the island. Menorca is part of the Balearic Islands. Thauls can reach 3.7 m in height and consist of a vertical pillar (a monolith or several small stones stacked on top of each other) with a horizontal stone placed on top. A U-shaped wall is usually adjacent to a structure.

Tauls are monuments of the Talayot ​​culture, which existed in the period 1000-300. BC e.

The most famous taulas are Torre Trencada, Talati de Dalt, Torrellissa Nou, Trepuco and Torralba d'en Salord.

Megaliths are found in different parts of the world and usually date back to the Neolithic era. The megaliths that diversify the landscape of Menorca belong to the Talayot ​​era, which lasted in the Balearic archipelago from the middle of the 2nd century. until the end of the 1st millennium BC. e. The name of the era is taken from the most characteristic megalithic structure represented on the island - the talaiota (from Arab. Atalaya) - a cone-shaped stone tower with a height of 5 to 10 m.

Trilithons of Stonehenge

Trilithons(rice. 1.5) - a special type of prehistoric monuments belonging to the category of so-called megaliths (menhirs, dolmens, cromlechs, etc.). They consist of three monoliths; in some places two are in a standing position, and the third is laid across, together forming a semblance of a gate; in others, all three stones stand parallel, at some distance from each other, for example, above prehistoric tombs in Prussia, along the banks of the Oder. Triliths, like megaliths in general, served as a type of tombstone in the Neolithic period.

Seyda (seida)- a sacred object of the Northern European peoples, in particular the Sami (Lapps). It may represent a special place in the mountains, tundra, taiga, a distinct rock, a noticeable stone, a stump, a lake, or another natural formation. The concept of seid also includes artifacts - structures made of stones and Mongolian ritual structures - about.

Seids, like stone structures, are found in Russia (in Karelia and the Kola Peninsula), as well as in Scandinavia. The most easily readable type of stone seid are stone pyramids (gurias). Often there are also rocks on stands - “stone legs”, partially raised rocks or placed in an unstable position.

Cairns- ensembles of galleries and chambers, covered with earth on top, i.e. in this case, dolmens formed their skeleton, as it were. Dolmens are usually “boxes” made up of stone slabs, sometimes joined by long or short galleries. They were collective burial chambers, as evidenced by bone remains and votive treasures (ceramics, jewelry, polished stone axes).

In the Eurasian expanses there are also interesting architectural monuments that tell us about the nomadic nature of the culture of the primitive peoples of Eurasia. These are the so-called Scythian-Sarmatian and Slavic burial mounds, as well as burial mounds of the Mongolian peoples. In fact, the mound not only played the role of a memorial structure that preserves the memory of the ancestors buried in it, but was also the only landmark in the vast expanses of Eurasia. However, at the end of the Neolithic era, permanent residential buildings also appeared. There is an opinion that the term “build” originally meant the connection of three supports - such a rigid structure is quite suitable for a hut. However, it is considered more reasonable that the Russian word “architecture” comes from the Iranian-Slavic root “zed”, which denoted various products and objects made of clay. As we know, in the south, on the lands of the Trypillian culture (modern Central Ukraine), houses were sculpted from clay, either wicker structures were coated with clay, or sculpted from unbaked brick, and besides, these houses were placed on stilts along the banks of the Dnieper, which made it possible to defend from a sudden attack. Similar methods of building residential buildings were characteristic not only of the Trypillian culture, but also of the era of the Sumerian kingdom, the period of the Early and Old Kingdoms in Egypt, and primitive China. In addition, the settlements of the Trypillian culture were already stationary settlements built on stilts. It must be said that many historians studying the history of the Slavs believe that this type of structure is precisely characteristic of the Proto-Slavic tribes. In defense of this opinion, it should be noted that to this day the technique of building houses and entire cities on stilts is present in many European countries where the Slavs previously lived. For example, in the north of Italy, the city of Grado was built in this way, which even by its name indicates that it was founded, rebuilt and inhabited by the Slavs - the Wends (Veneti), who, according to the historian Tacitus, “live along the coast of the Jadran (Adriatic) Sea” . By the way, the name of the city still retains the Slavic root “grad”. However, the most striking example that Trypillian architecture could be precisely Proto-Slavic is the ethnographic reserve preserved in eastern Germany in Lausitz-Spreewald, near the city of Cottbus, where the Slavic ethnic minority of Germany, the Lusatian Sorbs, live. Houses in Lausice are built on stilts along the banks of the Lusatia River and are connected by canals (Fig. 1.6).

Soviet archaeologists P. P. Efimenko and A. N. Rogachev in 1937 near the village of Kostenki, Voronezh region, were able to discover

Lusatian House (Germany)

Kostenkovskoe dwelling. Reconstruction to dig several interesting sites with spacious elongated dwellings (Fig. 1.7). The size of the largest building was 33.5 x 5.5 m. The dwelling was buried 40 cm into the ground and its long axis was located along the slope, this reduced the risk of being flooded by spring floods. Unlike the Trypillian type of building, the residential building of the Kostenki culture was intended to house not one family, but several belonging to the same clan. This fact suggests that the inhabitants of the Kostenki settlement still lived in tribal family communities and did not move to the neighboring community as Trypillians. Inside, the Kostenki dwelling was divided into a number of rooms that served as separate family dormitories. Thus, this dwelling was divided according to the number of families living in it, which corresponded to the number of hearths.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

in the history of architecture

ARCHITECTURE OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

2. Egyptian architecture

3. Architecture of Mesopotamia

4. Acropolis

Application

1. Paleolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age architecture

The origin of architecture dates back to the era of the primitive communal system in the late Paleolithic era (about 10 thousand years BC), when the first artificially built dwellings and settlements arose.

The simplest techniques for organizing space based on a rectangle and a circle were mastered, and the development of structural systems with supports-walls or racks, conical, gable or flat beam coverings began.

Natural materials were used (wood, stone), and raw brick was made. All this was mastered by man before writing appeared. Primitive people preferred to use natural shelters - caves.

The construction of artificial caves in rocks became possible only with the advent of metal tools.

To prevent ceiling collapses when excavating weak and layered rocks, caves were given a pointed shape.

This outline, more or less regular, is given to a large number of artificial caves. With the transition to a sedentary lifestyle, the first buildings appear.

During the Paleolithic era, people developed new skills, and their homes improved accordingly.

The reason for improvement was also climate change, which required more sustainable housing and tools.

In the first half of 3 thousand BC. e. matriarchy begins in the second half of 2 thousand BC. e. patriarchy comes and with it monumental architecture appears, megalithic architecture/menhir - 1 stone, dolmen - 2, covered with a third, cromlech - formation, a row of stones. For example, Stonehenge, 17th century BC. e.

2. Egyptian architecture

The creation of a powerful centralized state under the rule of the pharaoh, who is considered the son of the god Ra, also dictated the main type of architectural structure - the tomb, which by external means conveys the idea of ​​​​his divinity. Egypt reached its highest growth under the rulers of the 3rd and 4th dynasties. The largest royal tombs-pyramids are being created, the structures of which were worked on for decades not only by slaves, but also by peasants. This historical period is often called the “time of the pyramids.”

One of the earliest monuments of monumental stone architecture is the ensemble of funerary structures of the III dynasty pharaoh Djoser. It was erected under the direction of the Egyptian architect Imhotep. Abandoning the traditional mastaba form, Imhotep settled on a pyramid with a rectangular base, consisting of six steps. Step pyramids were also built by other pharaohs of the III dynasty (pyramids in Medum and Dahshur), one of them has diamond-shaped contours.

The idea of ​​a pyramid tomb found its perfect expression in the tombs built in Giza for the pharaohs of the IV dynasty - Cheops, Khafre and Mikerin. The largest of them was created by the architect Hemiun for Pharaoh Cheops. At each pyramid, a temple was built, the entrance to which was located on the banks of the Nile and was connected to the temple by a long covered corridor. Around the pyramids there were mastabas in rows. The pyramid of Mikerin remained unfinished and was completed by the son of the pharaoh not from stone blocks, but from brick.

Towards the end of the Old Kingdom period, a new type of building appeared - the solar temple. It was built on a hill and surrounded by a wall. In the center of a spacious courtyard with chapels, they placed a colossal stone obelisk with a gilded copper top and a huge altar at the foot. The most famous is the temple of Niusirra in Abydos.

In the era of the Middle Kingdom, the idea of ​​equality after death arose, which was immediately reflected in the technical side of the cult of the dead. It has become very simplified. Scale-type tombs have become unnecessary luxury.

To ensure eternal life, one stele was enough - a stone slab on which magical texts and everything that the deceased needed in the afterlife were written. However, the pharaohs continued to build tombs in the form of pyramids, but their sizes were significantly reduced, the material for construction was not two-ton blocks, but raw brick, and the method of masonry also changed. The basis consisted of eight capital stone walls, radiating radii from the center of the pyramid to its corners and the middle of each side. Eight other walls extended from these walls at an angle of 45 degrees, and the gaps between them were filled with fragments of stone, sand, and brick.

The top of the pyramid was faced with limestone slabs, connected to each other with wooden fasteners.

Just as in the Old Kingdom, the upper mortuary temple was adjacent to the eastern side of the pyramid, from which there was a covered passage to the temple in the valley. Currently, these pyramids are piles of ruins. Along with the pyramids, a new type of funerary structure appeared, combining the traditional form of a pyramid and a rock tomb. The most significant of these monuments was the tomb of King Mentuhotep II at Deir el-Bahri. Its foundation was a natural rock. A significant structure from the Middle Kingdom era is the funeral complex of Pharaoh Amenemhat III in Hawara. The pyramid is made of brick and lined with limestone, the burial chamber is carved from a single block of polished yellow quartzite. The mortuary temple at the pyramid became especially famous. This temple went down in cultural history as a labyrinth. The construction of temples was carried out in three main directions: ground, rock and semi-rock temple complexes were erected.

The above-ground temples were an elongated rectangle surrounded by a high massive wall, to the gate of which a wide road led from the Nile, decorated on both sides with statues of sphinxes. The entrance to the temple was decorated with a pylon. The entrance led into an open, colonnaded courtyard ending in a portico built slightly above the level of the courtyard. In the center of the courtyard there was a sacrificial stone. Behind the portico there was a hypostyle, and behind it, in the depths of the temple, there was a chapel, consisting of several rooms.

Both temples of Amon in Thebes - Karnak and Luxor - belong to this type of temple. The rock temple complexes are shaped like an inverted “T”. The facade of the temple was carved out of the outer part of the rock, all other rooms went deeper. An example of a temple of this type is the Temple of Ramses II in Abu Simbel. The ensemble consists of two buildings: the Big Temple and the Small Church. The big one was dedicated to the pharaoh and three gods: Amon, Ra, and Ptah. The small one was erected in honor of the goddess Hathor, whose image coincided with the image of Ramses II’s wife Nefertari.

An example of a half-rock mortuary temple is the temple of Queen Hatshepsut in Deir el-Bahri. It was a combination of three cubes placed on top of each other. The design of the facades was based on alternating the horizontals of the terraces with the verticals of the colonnades.

In the lower tier there was a portico, occupying the entire length of the eastern wall and divided in the middle by a ramp. A staircase led to the second terrace, visually being a continuation of the ramp.

3. Architecture of Mesopotamia

In ancient Mesopotamia, due to the lack of local stone and wood, the main building material was raw brick, from which both mass housing and monumental structures were erected. Burnt brick has also been known since ancient times, but it was rarely used, mainly as a facing material. Bitumen (mountain tar) was widely used as a binder and waterproofing material. Local wood (palm) and imported wood (cedar, pine) were highly valued and were mainly used for ceilings, door and window parts, and for decoration. The shortage of wood and the absence of high-strength stones largely determined the widespread development of vaulted structures, which apparently appeared in Mesopotamia earlier than in other countries. Since ancient times, “false” vaults have been built, but already in the 3rd millennium BC. e. (royal tombs of Ur), along with false ones, there are spacer vaults.

Burnt brick was used mainly in the construction of palaces, temples and especially important defense structures. The combination of a brick base and stone cladding in the construction of walls is one of the most important features of Assyro-Babylonian building art. In Assyria and New Babylon, Mesopotamian arched-vaulted structures continue to develop.

The vaults covered relatively small spans. Wooden beam flooring remained the main type of flooring for residential premises. Noticeable progress in the development of building structures was observed in Ancient Iran in the use of post-beam systems, but especially in vault construction.

4. Acropolis architecture structural construction

The sacred road leads to the Propylaea, which has 5 passages and in ancient times was flanked by two equestrian statues of the Dioscuri. In the left, protruding wing, the Pinakothek was located, and in the right there was a storage room for manuscripts and a room for the gatekeeper and watchmen. To the right of the Propylaea stands a small, light and graceful Ionic temple dedicated to Athena Nike, known as the Temple of Nike Apteros (Wingless Victory, architect Kallikrates). After the participants of the procession passed the Propylaea, a panorama of the central part of the complex opened in front of them. In the foreground stood a colossal bronze statue of Athena Promachos (Warrior), cast by Phidias.

Behind it, the Erechtheion was visible in the distance. The temple has an asymmetrical Plan, unique in Greek architecture, its three porticos are located at different levels: on the western side - the Portico leading to the Temple of Athena Polyada (City), on the northern side - the entrance to the sanctuary of Poseidon-Erechtheus, at the southern wall of the temple - the famous Portico of the Caryatids . The Erechtheion contrasts with the strict and majestic, emphatically monumental Parthenon (temple of Athena the Virgin, architect Ictinus with the participation of Kallicrates), which is a Doric peripterus. The building is perceived from the Propylaea in three quarters.

In the temple itself there was a statue of Athena Parthenos (Virgin) by Phidias. The pediments contained sculptural groups depicting the most significant events in the cult of Athena. The metope reliefs along the perimeter of the building depicted scenes of mythological battles. Architectural details, sculpture and reliefs were brightly painted.

The open area of ​​the Acropolis was occupied by numerous altars and gifts to the gods - statues, steles. The temple and theater of Dionysus (VI century BC - rebuilt in 326), the Odeon of Pericles (an indoor round building for musical competitions) (2nd half of the 5th century BC) adjoined the northwestern slope of the Acropolis. ), Theater of Herodes Atticus (2nd century AD), Sanctuary of Asclepius, Stoa (Porticus) of Eumenes.

Application

Rice. - Acropolis of Athens:

Posted on Allbest.ru

Similar documents

Review of megalithic structures of the Ancient World. Menhirs and their probable purpose. Cromlech at Stonehenge. Scientists' assumptions about the appearance of dolmens in the Western Caucasus. Their architecture, construction features. Ritual features in their design.

abstract, added 01/11/2015


Funeral structures of ancient Egyptian pharaohs and nobles of the Old Kingdom era. The heyday of ancient Egyptian architecture. The Great Gallery and the Queen's Chambers. Internal structure of the Medum pyramid. Stages of construction of the pyramid of Cheops, Khafre, Mikerin.

abstract, added 01/16/2014


Sacred, religious and holy buildings. Styles of temple architecture. Eastern school of religious architecture. Architecture of Ancient China. Religions that left their mark on Chinese architecture. The main historical stages in the development of Chinese religious architecture.

abstract, added 05/25/2012


A short excursion into history. Architecture of Kyiv, ancient Novgorod, Vladimir, Moscow. The architectural structures of early Christian Rus' were predominantly wooden. This was explained by pre-Christian building traditions and the material was the cheapest.

abstract, added 06/09/2005


Architecture of the Middle Ages, Ancient Egypt, Greece, Rome and Modern times. Study of the construction secrets of ancient architects. Theory of proportions by A. Thiersch. Mathematical and rounded values ​​of Corbusier's Modulor system number series in the metric system.

abstract, added 12/12/2013


Stages of development of Roman architecture. Improving arch construction techniques, active construction of aqueducts and bridges. Widespread use of concrete, new types of buildings. The type of monumental structure is a triumphal arch. Roman engineering skills.

presentation, added 04/06/2012


The concept of the forum in Ancient Rome as a square and market, which were the center of the cultural life of the city. Construction of a basilica on the forums. Components of the architectural ensemble of the forum (temples, merchants' shops, markets). The forums of Ancient Rome are architectural monuments.

abstract, added 10/17/2014


The development of hospitality, accommodation facilities in the Roman Empire, features of architectural structures and interior decoration of Ancient Rome. Technology of Roman wall painting. The Romans' understanding of their cultural mission. Fall of the Roman Empire.

test, added 07/31/2009


Construction of structures made of natural stone. Structures of Etruscan and early Roman architecture. The flourishing of Romanesque architecture in Italy in the 12th century. Development of realistic Gothic tendencies. Renaissance architecture. Baroque style and classicism.

abstract, added 03/11/2011


Features of the Mayan architectural style. Description of the structure of cities and the specifics of the culture of the Old Kingdom (classical period), late classical and May-Toltec periods. Expression of ancient Mayan history through works of art, architecture.

Although bridges were rarely built in ancient Greek cities (there are no arches or arched vaults in the construction practice of the Greeks), the historical review should begin with the heritage of this particular era and not only because of its enormous influence on world architecture. For a civil engineer, the role of the structure in shaping the appearance of a structure is of great interest, and it was Ancient Grace that became the source of classical post-and-beam structures.

The artistic understanding of the constructive system reached its maximum completion in the architecture of Greek temples. In these buildings the order system was developed. The concept of order (structure, order) is used primarily in relation to stone structures; it appeared as a designation for a stone post-and-beam system in the temples of Ancient Greece. The oldest are two types of orders - Doric and Ionic. There was also a third type of order - Corinthian, but it was used relatively rarely in Greek architecture. The order consists of three main parts - the base, the column and the ceiling. Structurally, the order is a post-and-beam system, which first appeared in wooden buildings and was then transferred to stone structures. Its prototype is wooden pillars mounted on a pedestal, which carry a rafter floor. The Doric order was formed on the Greek mainland, where buildings made from large timber were common. The more elegant Ionic order appeared on the islands of the Aegean Sea, where small logs were used for construction. The structural origin of the decorative elements of the order is confirmed by comparison with related wooden systems. For example, on the upper edge of the architrave beam, under each triglyph, longitudinal plates with so-called droplets are placed. These details, according to scientists, imitate the nails that were used to nail the skin of the wooden beams. Triglyphs are also a “relic” of wooden construction; their purpose is to cover the end of the floor beam. Similar analogues can be given for other order elements.

In Ancient Greece, a significant number of types of temple orders developed. The main one was peripter, i.e. The temple is surrounded on all sides by a colonnade. Simpler and earlier in time were the prostila (a temple with a columned portico on the facade) and amphiprostyle(with two order porticos on opposite sides). There were also more complex systems, for example dipter - temple surrounded by two rows of columns. There are round temples with colonnades

Religious buildings were not the only type of building. In Greek cities, stone residential and public buildings, fortifications, stadiums, and ports were built, most of which have not survived even in fragments.

The Roman state was heavily influenced by Greek culture. The Romans not only adopted most of the Greek construction techniques, but also borrowed the main achievement of the Greeks - the order system. The order, however, was not literally transferred to their buildings. From its three Greek types, no less than five Roman varieties were formed on Italian soil.

In the architecture of Greek classics, the order system was used in strict accordance with its constructive essence. The Greeks understood and used it only as a post-and-beam structure laid on stone material. It artistically denoted the actual construction of Greek temples. Roman builders used the order more freely and did not always, especially in the later period of development of their era, link it with the structural system of the building. For example, columns with an entablature topped with a pediment could exist as an independent architectural form, which was superimposed on the facade wall and artistically formed the entrance to the building. This is the entrance portico of the Roman Pantheon. The order was often used as a purely decorative element, decorating interiors or breaking up the smooth walls of buildings.

Thus, one of the characteristic features of Roman architecture was a more free interpretation of the order system.

The order is not the only compositional system of the ancient builders. The arch acquired no less importance in Roman architecture. The order-arch cell as an artistic system was of purely Roman origin. With its help, such structures as the Arch of Emperor Titus or the Colosseum were solved.

Roman architecture featured a significant variety of building types. An important day for bridge workers was the appearance during this period of capital stone bridges and water supply structures - aqueducts, as well as roads paved with stones.

In addition to temples, stadiums, theaters, and residential buildings, the Romans built arenas, surrounded on all sides by seats for spectators, amphitheaters (the largest Flavian amphitheater or Colosseum); multi-storey residential buildings - insulas (in modern language, apartment buildings) to the palace; public baths - thermal baths that simultaneously perform the functions of clubs; triumphal squares of emperors - forums. A new type of public building appears in Rome - the basilica, which later turns into a Christian temple.

The Roman state had significant construction capabilities, and the efforts of its architects were aimed at their most rational use. At the same time, the design and architectural form could exist independently of each other. Sometimes the architecture truthfully expressed the constructive basis of the structure, but more often, especially during the period of the emperors, the design of facades and interiors was carried out with the help of a huge decoration, in which the odds of the order or order-arch system could be used. Confirmation of this is the Baths of Caracalla in Rome or the Pantheon.

The lack of connection between architectural form and structure is largely due to the construction methods that existed at the time. Construction work in the Roman state employed a large number of unskilled labor. Hence the desire to organize the construction process as rationally as possible, dividing functions between performers as much as possible and simplifying construction techniques. As a result, the construction of the building and its architectural decoration were carried out by different groups of workers.

The need to constantly simplify construction techniques led the Romans to a large number of ingenious inventions, which made it possible to significantly simplify and reduce the cost of building construction. All construction techniques of the Romans can be divided into two large groups, determined by the characteristics of the material used. The first group includes methods for constructing buildings from monolithic concrete masonry, the second - from ashlar.

The Roman state had a developed network of communications. Its total length was approximately 80,000 km. A large number of bridges were built on the roads. Every major city was supplied with water. The length of Rome's water pipelines was 500 km, of which 55 km passed through aqueduct arches. About 30 stone bridges have survived to this day, of which 6 are in Rome itself, and 30 aqueducts. The first stone bridge was built in 127 BC. and was located in the city center at the foot of the Palatine Hill.

The bridges of Rome and its provinces are characterized by a symmetrical façade composition with an odd number of spans. The central part of the roadway is horizontal, the axis of symmetry is often marked by an attic (a low decorative wall, usually located above the arcade), and the slopes of both entrances are symmetrical. The extreme arches are smaller than the middle ones. At one of the ramps there could be a triumphal arch - a characteristic element in the composition of Roman bridges. Additional holes were located above the supports, which served to allow water to pass through the flood and at the same time lighten the weight of the structure. Such, for example, is the Fabricius Bridge in Rome, built in the middle of the 1st century BC. Such holes appeared as a purely functional element. However, in a number of cases they become part of the decor, for example on the bridge over the Mareccia River in Riminia, built in 20 BC.

The arches of the bridges had a semi-circular shape, the rise of their arches was equal to half the span.

The principle of greatest economy and maximum rationality, characteristic of Roman builders, was manifested in the choice of material. The outer layer of some bridges is made of durable and expensive material - travertine, the inner rows are made of cheaper tuff. This technique was used, for example, in the construction of Hadrian's Bridge in Rome (modern name Bridge of the Angel). The laying of its vaults from blocks without mortar is characteristic of most stone bridges, such as the bridge over the Mareccia River in Riminia, the Fabricius and Cestia bridges on the island of Aesculapius in Rome.

At the same time, Roman builders constantly sought to simplify and reduce the cost of constructing stone vaults. The first practical conclusion they made from considerations of economy is that they erected only the upper part of the vault masonry in formwork, using the projections made in the masonry of the lower parts of the vault as support for the circles. This was done in the Gardian aqueduct, on the Fabricius bridge, etc.

Then the Romans began to simplify the design of the upper part of the arches. As a result, the stonework of the vaults is a series of narrow arches, touching each other, but not connected in any way; the vault is, as it were, cut into separate independent links that touch each other. This technique was used in the Gardsky aqueduct and some other bridges. The absence of a bandage in such masonry is completely justified, since to support it during the construction process, two circles are enough at the ends of the vault and one circle under each seam of two adjacent arches. There is no need to use continuous flooring. Each stone covers the distance between two circles and directly rests on them (Fig. 10 a)

Roads and bridges

The Carthaginians, Phoenicians, Israelites and Romans devoted a lot of time and attention to building roads. Probably the main reasons for this were of a military nature. It turned out that good roads are very useful for trade, and already in ancient times they began to be considered an indicator of the civilization and wealth of the people. Thus, Josephus Flavius ​​(Jewish Antiquities, book 8, chapter 7, 44) says about Solomon: “... he also paid special attention to the routes of communication in general, and in particular to those roads that led to his capital Jerusalem, and ordered them to be paved with black stone, on the one hand, in order to facilitate the movement of travelers, and on the other, to once again show the full strength of his wealth and the greatness of his power.” On these ancient roads mile (119) stones were placed at regular intervals. But despite the fact that the Chinese can undoubtedly be called one of the most ancient civilized peoples, the roads in their country are neither long nor durable. The reason why China is so different from other ancient Asian states is that this vast and fertile country abounds in beautiful rivers with numerous tributaries. Not only do they themselves provide excellent means of communication between the most distant parts of the empire, but they also provide the resources for a complex system of canals that developed at a time when they were hardly known to Europe. Chinese canals, better than roads, can testify to the degree of civilization of this wonderful people. Indeed, the rivers of China are highways that the beneficent hand of Providence laid for the local inhabitants throughout the vast empire. If two hundred years ago our own civilization had been tested on the condition of its roads, it would have been considered woefully deficient. About England in 1685 T.B. Macaulay writes: “The best routes of communication were characterized by deep ruts and steep slopes. At dusk, the road was often difficult to distinguish from the unfenced heaths and swamps lying on either side.” In the same historian we read of high-ranking travelers who traveled fourteen miles in five hours, and nine in six hours; and the journey from Leeds to London, in his words, was fraught with “so many dangers and disasters that they would be enough for a journey to the Arctic Ocean and the Sahara Desert.”

Poor woman being carried in a basket

Despite the obvious little importance that is attached to road construction in China, of course, there are many highways running in all directions of the vast empire. In the southern and central provinces they are nothing more than ordinary paths. In the vast majority of cases, they are so narrow that it is impossible for two travelers to ride on them or walk side by side. The roads leading to remote villages are, of course, much worse, but in the northern provinces, where water communications are not so developed and travel by cart, wagon or horse and mule is almost universal, the roads are wide. It is true that they are in a state of disrepair, and the ruts are deep enough to make travel (especially in Chinese carts or wagons, which generally have no springs) a trial for sensitive people. In wet weather, these roads simply turn into muddy puddles because, to my knowledge, they are never laid with crushed stone. The distance from Peking to the Yuan-ming-yuan, or imperial summer palace, is eight or nine miles, and is reached by the broad flagstone road of the emperor. Its width allows two large family carriages to drive side by side, but the slabs are so chipped from time to time that driving along the imperial road is very inconvenient and unpleasant. An imperial highway also leads from Beijing to the city of Tongzhou, repeating in all respects the one described above. The third imperial highway I have traveled on leads from Peking to Xining, which is eighty miles distant. This road is only paved for six miles. From Suzhou, Jiangsu province, to Hangzhou in the neighboring province of Zhejiang, there is a highway that was once undoubtedly considered very thorough. Still, apparently, it is not particularly durable, because although it was built recently, it is already very dilapidated. On many stretches of the route between these two cities, parts of the said highway testify, if not to the strength, then to the skill with which it was laid. From the city of Wuchang to the market town of Ping-huang-zhen and three miles further along the road along the banks of the Grand Canal, a stone wall was built. Sturdy stone bridges span the numerous streams, small canals and natural obstacles that cross the path.

Chinese convicts

There are granite markers and signs along all Chinese highways and secondary roads. According to the law, every ten li at each highway there should be a signal tower, on which, if necessary, a fire can be lit to warn of the invasion of an enemy army, but this law is not always followed, and on the roads of the central and southern provinces there are few signal towers, and the distance there is a lot between them. In addition, there are wells along the roads of the northern provinces from which water is drawn for pack animals and cattle. Water is poured into a trench adjacent to the well and a fee of one copper coin per head is charged for it. Once, while traveling through Zhili Province, I stopped at one of these wells. The Buddhist monk who was on duty with him, having given water to the horses and mules, came up to us and politely invited us to drink tea, and refused to accept payment for the treat. To avoid the danger of robbery on the roads, small shrines with idols are sometimes placed on the roadsides. It is assumed that robbers will not dare to appear in such sacred places.

Porters

All imperial roads are built and maintained by the central government; large ones are usually built and repaired at the expense of the people, and sometimes at the expense of private individuals. On the side of a road built or repaired at the expense of a private individual, a stele of black marble or granite is erected, on which is placed a reliable account of this virtuous deed.

I will say a few words about Chinese bridges. I saw several beautiful bridges in the northern provinces of the empire. On the way to the valley where the tombs of many Ming emperors are located, near the city of Changping, I passed through a beautiful stone bridge with three or four spans, ornate balustrades. A road also leads to the border city of Zhang-chia-kou from the south, passing through a beautiful stone bridge, but the most beautiful of such buildings in the northern province of Zhili is the marble bridge in Beijing. It consists of three large arches and is so wide that three large family carriages can drive along it side by side. The balustrades are richly decorated with sculptures. The bridge offers a beautiful view of the surrounding area. Despite the fact that it is very close to the imperial palaces and grounds, the bridge is always open to the public, except for two days a year. The reason for the prohibition is that on the fifth day of the sixth month the emperor passes through this bridge to admire his flowers, which grow in abundance in the imperial garden nearby; on the eighth day of the twelfth month, His Majesty again passes through the bridge to his gardens, but why - I could not find out. In addition, in the city of Nanjing and its environs, I have repeatedly seen the ruins of beautiful stone bridges with three, five and seven spans. One of them leads to the palace of the Ming emperors lying in ruins. Obviously, it was once beautiful, but now little remains of its former greatness.

The bridges in Zhenjiang are small but very beautiful. If they were the work of a European architect, they would bring him fame. The most elegant of them is a single-span bridge not far from the temple dedicated to the pagan deity Cheng Huang.

A Chinese city remarkably rich in bridges is Danyang Xian on the banks of the Grand Canal. It was once rich and prosperous, and within the city walls there are canals or streams on almost every corner. When the bridges were in better condition than they are now, they were probably very elegant. When I visited Danyang, I saw that many of the buildings there lay in ruins, having been captured and almost destroyed by the rebels - a horde of barbarians who seem to routinely reduce defending cities to rubble. In addition, there are many elegant single-span bridges spanning the Grand Canal. There is usually a large distance between bridge supports. In Tang-si, Hangzhou region, on the banks of the Grand Canal there is a very beautiful bridge of seven arches; in Changzhou I saw an equally elegant one, but of three arches.

I can't help but mention here the beautiful single span bridge in Yangzhou city. At the highest point there stands a lovely pagoda, the lower floor of which forms part of the bridge.

In addition, there are several very large bridges in the northern and central provinces. In Shandong Province there is a bridge with seventy-two or seventy-three arches. In the city of Wuchang, on the banks of the Grand Canal, I passed over a bridge of fifty-three arches leading to the eastern gate. On the way from Wuchang to Suzhou, I noticed on the road to Lake Taihu a bridge of twenty-six arches; the latter, before it was partially destroyed during the rebellion, had fifty-three arches. And in the city of Fuzhou there is also a very long bridge across the Minjiang River.

In my opinion, in the southern provinces of the empire the bridges are much worse than those I just described. If I had not visited the north of China, then, of course, I would have returned to England, believing that the art of bridge building was completely unknown to the inhabitants of the Celestial Empire. Thus, in southern China, bridges, as a rule, consist of two or three granite slabs laid on the same supports. They are often without railings, as, for example, in Syria and Asia Minor, but accidents are rare there, since the Chinese are not only teetotalers, but are also accustomed to returning home early. Some of these flat bridges are made of granite and look impressive, such as those located near Canton in Shizhen and Aishui. The second of them is supported by tall monolithic granite columns.

In Guangdong province, among the bridges with high arches, I saw only a five-span bridge in Huadi and a new bridge in Nan-tai-tsun in Xiang-shan county. Many bridges over the Grand Canal have bas-relief hieroglyphs. Some of them are ethical maxims, others report the distance from one place to another, others list the names of members of the family at whose expense the construction of the bridge was undertaken as a matter pleasing to the gods.

Bridge with pagoda

Sometimes bridges are built by the government, sometimes by the people. The bridge in Shichzhen was built at the expense of the residents of thirteen villages located nearby. For a private individual, building a bridge is a virtuous act that is highly valued by the Buddhist religion. When construction is completed, a lucky day is chosen for the grand opening and Taoist priests are invited to bless the opening. The oldest person in the county crosses the bridge first and carries a baby in his arms. This ceremony means that the bridge will serve future generations. Then theatrical performances are staged to entertain the crowd. On this occasion, fireworks are released with unusual noise. At the end of such a bridge a small permanent altar is erected in honor of his genius. Every morning and every evening, pious residents light scented candles in front of it.

In some parts of the empire you can see bridges with houses on either side. Thus, on the five-span bridge within the walls of the city of Nanjing, near the southern gate, and on the bridge outside the gates of the same city, I saw rows of houses, as in engravings depicting the old London Bridge: both sides of the road were occupied by rows of shops and residential buildings. In Zhenjiang I walked across a bridge with several houses on it. In addition, I discovered residential buildings on both sides of a wooden bridge over a mountain river flowing into the Feng Hua, a tributary of the Ningbo (or Yongjiang) River.

Some authors claimed that the Chinese invented suspension bridges with chains. Walker's book, Wonders of the World in Nature, Art, and Mind, published in New York in 1850, states that “a famous bridge of this kind is on the road to Yunnan, Guizhou Province. It is thrown across a fast stream between two high mountains. It was built by a certain Chinese general in 35 AD. At each end of the rock there is a gate built between two granite columns six or seven feet high and seventeen or eighteen feet wide. Between these columns, four chains are suspended on large rings, connected transversely by smaller chains. Wooden boards are laid on top of them, which are replaced as they wear out. Other suspension bridges have been built in China in imitation of this, but none of them are so large or have proven so durable.” The Chinese are also familiar with floating bridges or bridges made from boats. In Zhejiang province, such a bridge is built across the river in Ningbo; in Tianjin, a much smaller one of the same type is thrown across the Grand Canal. The largest one I know is a floating bridge across the northern branch of the Pearl River (Pearl River). It can probably compete with the bridges that Darius built across the Bosphorus and the Danube for military purposes, or with the famous bridge that the daring Xerxes threw across the Hellespont during his ill-fated expedition to Europe.

The Roman state, which united large territories with diverse peoples, was especially strong in military, technical and organizational terms, which was primarily reflected in the construction of roads and road structures in Rome, without which the existence of a huge state was unthinkable.
By developing its means of communication, ancient Rome was to a certain extent similar to a modern state. It had about 80,000 km of highways with many stone bridges. Every major city was supplied with water, and Rome alone had up to 500 km of water lines, of which 55 km passed through aqueduct arches.
The social needs of the gigantic Roman state were immeasurably more complex than the needs of the city-states of ancient Greece.
The new stage in the development of slavery was characterized by a huge number of slaves engaged in the construction of grandiose state structures - aqueducts, bridges and public buildings. New technology also responded to new social conditions and social needs. It is characterized by the use of large masses of concrete, the laying of which could be carried out by unskilled Arab workers, and the widespread use of vaulted and arched structures. However, bridges were usually built not from concrete, but from stone.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, the bridges were destroyed over the centuries. In our time, only about 30 Roman bridges and 30 aqueducts have survived. Of these, up to 30 structures are located in Italy, up to 10 in Spain, 8 in France, the rest in Germany and Turkey. Bridges in Africa and Asia have been partially preserved. Roman architects sought to ensure that architecture primarily met state and public needs. Architects showed increased interest in technical and economic issues, especially in the construction of bridges, the large scale of which required a wide variety of types.
Artistically, Rome widely used the principles of Eastern and Greek architecture.
Roman architecture, emphasizing utilitarian qualities, simplicity, and strength in bridges, at the same time sought to impress with their appearance, expressing grandeur, richness, and brilliance in architectural forms. To achieve the desired effect, she resorted to techniques that enhanced the visible power of the masonry, using rustications, large blocks, etc.
The order system was borrowed from Greece. Giving scale to large volumes, it served as a means of dismembering them. But often the order had only a decorative meaning.
Let's try to trace this using the example of a bridge built during the heyday of Rome from Dalmatian marble in Rimini. In essence, this is a monolithic wall in which holes are cut, but the arrangement of the stones and the very structure of the masonry visually give the bridge the character of a powerful barrier. Here we have a finely drawn cornice, barely outlined, but with great skill found proportions of niches and sidewalks, a calm outline of the vaults, a slow rhythm of powerful divisions. This gives the bridge the majesty, solemnity and pomp so typical of Roman monumental structures. At the same time, the architecture of the bridge reflected the ability, characteristic of early Roman buildings, to carry out dry masonry from large stone blocks that fit so tightly that it is difficult to distinguish the seams.
The bridge in Rimini is the oldest example of an oblique bridge. Its arches are oblique, because the bridge deck crosses the river flow obliquely (at an angle of 77°). Therefore, the plan has the form of a parallelogram, and not a rectangle. The composition of the bridge exhibits the ternary symmetry characteristic of Roman classics. The central part of the roadway, as in most Roman bridges, is horizontal; the axis of symmetry of the bridge is marked by the attic, which loads the middle arches, which enhances the power of the structure. The slopes of both entrances are symmetrical. Ritual monuments are made of granite, monuments are marble and granite. The outer arches are smaller than the middle ones, which slows down the development of the rhythm towards the ends of the bridge, sandwiched by massive abutments. At one of the ramps there was originally a triumphal arch.
The calm symmetry of this structure can be contrasted with the rare Roman example of an asymmetrical bridge in Narni near Rome, the deck of which had a one-way slope. Its span (34 m) is one of the largest among Roman bridges. The creeping elliptical outline of the second vault from the left is the only example of such a design among the Romans. The builders tried to give the bank arch on the opposite side of the river a ribbed structure. This attempt - one of the first bridges in history - failed.
The widespread use of semi-circular vaults on bridges was a new form introduced by Roman technology. The juxtaposition of the powerful forms of the vaults with the calm surface of the supports and tympanums served as one of the main means of influencing the viewer. Roman bridges, never repeating themselves, were distinguished by their extraordinary richness of compositions and variety of types of divisions.
It should be noted the special character of Roman bridge ensembles, which were usually built on contrasting the picturesque lines of nature with strictly geometric outlines of bridges with a sharply emphasized canvas and symmetrical layout.
Over the long period of existence of the “eternal city” of Rome, the concern of its residents for city communications was manifested in the construction of 9-10 bridges. Some of them are still in operation today. Their forms, created at centuries-long intervals, reflected the history of Rome. Numerous alterations of bridges make it possible to trace with sufficient completeness the nature of the development of Roman architecture by changing forms.
The ensemble of bridges in Rome is mainly based on the unity of material, but at the same time, due to the different periods of construction, neighboring bridges differ sharply in details.
A few kilometers above Rome on the Via Flaminia is the Mulvvia Bridge. It was rebuilt many times, and only some of its fragments are ancient. With its silhouette and general layout, it apparently served as a model for the Rimini Bridge. In early Roman times, bridges were simple. Holes were installed in the body of the bridge supports to allow floods to pass through.
The Elia Bridge, which follows the river, has a completely different character. A product of mature Rome, it is connected by unity of design with the Mausoleum of Hadrian, to which it served as a vestibule. In order to note the elegance of the bridge next to the powerful mass of the mausoleum, its author, Messius Rusticus, emphasized the length of the structure: by introducing sharp vertical divisions of the supports, he seemed to artificially increase the length of the bridge.
Thanks to the contrasting decrease in masses in height, the three-tiered bridge supports do not seem bulky. The original stepped lining of the bottom of the supports and the archivolts of the arches, strongly protruding but finely profiled, distinguish the bridge from its neighbors. In such details one can already feel the beginnings of pictorial trends in the architecture of late Rome.
During the restorations of the 15th century, the upper part of this bridge was reconstructed, “whose remains,” writes Alberti, “I contemplated with reverence. There used to be a roof here that rested on 42 marble columns with an architrave, bronze covering and amazing decoration.”
In the 17th century, the architect Bernini enhanced the deep-spatial elements of the composition by turning the roadway of the bridge into an alley of figures, culminating in the mighty silhouette of the mausoleum.
The nearby Bridge of Aurelius (260 AD), which is next downstream, was built later than all the others. It is difficult to judge its original appearance, since in 1475 it was significantly modified while preserving the ancient foundations. But in any case, its forms clearly and sharply contrast with the Elia Bridge.
One of the best ensembles of Rome, more than once immortalized by Piranesi in his famous engravings and serving as a model for subsequent builders, arose during the heyday of Rome near the island of Aesculapius on the Tiber after connecting this island with the city by the bridges of Fabricius and Cestia.
Using the same motif of additional holes on the supports as on the Milvia Bridge, the builders of the Fabricius Bridge also gave it a rich design, and its supports were installed on a stepped pedestal. The treatment of the island itself in the form of a sailing vessel - a Roman trireme - had a precedent in Babylon, but here it received a purely Roman scope. Now the Cestius Bridge has been completely rebuilt. The composition of both bridges makes extensive use of the laws of simple and multiple relations, the modular principle and other techniques characteristic of Roman architecture.
The ensemble of this corner of Rome ends with the remains of the Emilia or Senatori bridge, located even further down the river.
The oldest of the city's bridges, it was extensively restored during the Renaissance and then destroyed by the flood of 1598. Only one of the five spans, called Rotto, has survived from it (and it was destroyed). But even in its existing form it is of great architectural value.
The Proba and Feodosiya bridges have not reached us at all, and the memory of Triumphal has been preserved only in unconvincing drawings. Such a large number of bridges was an exceptional luxury for its time and suggests that in Rome the river was an organic part of the city ensemble.
No less picturesque and well connected with the surrounding landscape are the Solario and Nomentano bridges on small rivers near Rome. Later fortress-type superstructures reduced the significance of these bridges to the role of secondary basic parts, but both structures served as examples of three-dimensional compositions, rare in bridge art.
The Roman Empire, as is known, built its state power on the exploitation of the labor of slaves of its own and the provinces under its control.
It is quite natural that its architecture and technology had a certain influence on the creation of compositions and forms not only of the bridges of Rome, but also of the bridges of the most distant provinces. However, the spread of Roman architecture and technology was combined with the preservation of local color and national characteristics of the peoples inhabiting these provinces. Local flavor and national characteristics gave the buildings being built a special warmth and character.
In this regard, the ancient bridges of Spain are interesting, the methods of work and the quality of execution of which are at a high technical level, and the local way of life flows into the appearance of the structure with elusive features of intimacy and warmth.
Such, for example, is the Alcantara Bridge over the Tagus River, which flows here in a narrow and deep valley. The backdrop of the structure is a purely Spanish rocky landscape. Built somewhat earlier than the Aelia Bridge by Caius Julius Lazer, it is the highest of the Roman bridges. The vertical divisions that highlight the height of the supports are emphasized more strongly on it than on the Elia Bridge. This motif appears to have appeared for the first time in Spain. The spans of the bridge harmoniously decrease from the middle to the edges of the arch along the facade and are laid out from two rings. The outer one, formed by the release of bonded stones, appears in the form of an archivolt outlined in a circular arc. In this technique one can already feel the germ of the further development of flat vaults.
The triumphal arch, judging by the architecture, is Roman. It ends in crenellations, probably of medieval origin. Such a mixture of styles, without disturbing the overall harmony of the composition, only adds spice to it.
The bridge in Salamanca makes a great impression, where the vertical supports are also highlighted at full height and lined with large stones trimmed with a rough fur coat. This decoration successfully completes the panorama of the city, as if bringing a massive base under the pile of city buildings.
Other bridges in Spain were no less picturesque.
Such are, for example, the bridges in Merida, on the Guadiana River (the longest, at 780 m, of the Roman bridges with its 64 spans) and in Cordoba, across the Guadalquivir River, well connected with the silhouette of the city.
There is calm, clarity, and harmony in the bridges built in the Roman Empire. All of them are the result of the mastery of the means at the disposal of the Roman civil engineers and the scope of creativity that rose above the details and disposed of the whole.
The simplicity and metrical layout of the arcades corresponded to the fast pace of work carried out on a large scale. Usually the correct simple shapes were used - circle, square, right angle. Obtuse and acute angles are almost never found, and the elliptical outline is found only as an exception. The consequence of this: clarity and easy reading of bridge diagrams, repetition of motifs based on the use of a system of identical spans, a kind of standardization.
The construction of bridges was carried out by the hands of hereditary corporations, which included both architects and workers and artisans. From such corporations, medieval guilds later developed. This probably explains the fact that the names of the authors of outstanding structures have reached us only in rare cases.
The construction of bridges was very often carried out by contract, sometimes by legionnaires, especially from the 2nd century under emperors who persecuted and banned corporations. Innovations in the mechanization of work ensured a rapid pace. Roman technology introduced many new methods of work, such as masonry of quadra with seams without mortar, laying of vaults in parallel rings, pozzolanic concrete, which was subsequently forgotten, the construction of powerful foundations on piles, standardization in the preparation and laying of blocks, etc.
The thickness of the vaults was made no less than fourteenth to seventeenth of the span, and the bulls, due to the small pressures allowed on the base, were very wide, reaching half and a third of the span and only sometimes up to one fifth. This made it possible to build bridge vaults sequentially one after another. The width of the bridges reached 8-11 m. The entrances to them were made quite steep.
Many bridges have triumphal arches (Rimini, Alcantara); architectural arches have been preserved on the memorial bridge in S. Schama. The arch that stood on the Sainte Bridge over the Charente River has now been dismantled and rebuilt on the river bank, but as a monument.
In some cases, for example on the Asia Minor Bridge in Kyakhta, paired columns take the place of arches. The height of these columns stops attention. It is disproportionately small compared to the size of the structure. The design of the bridge does not have the strict simplicity of its heyday. Thus, the high technology of late Rome, which gave the largest (34.2 m) span for that time and large dimensions of the vault wedges, no longer found such equivalent expression in architecture as in its heyday.
The wooden bridges of the Romans are of more engineering than architectural significance. The Romans were also bold innovators in the design of these bridges.
The arch bridge over the Danube, depicted on Trajan's Column in Rome, built and described by Apollodorus of Damascus (possibly simultaneously with the construction of the Alcantara Bridge), later served as a model for modern through-arch structures. According to Dio Cassius, it had 20 spans of 35 m each, concrete supports and a total length of up to 1 km.
All bridges in Rome were originally wooden. It is known that Palladio, Scamozzi, Alberti, then Rondelet and a number of other restorers restored the structure of the wooden beam bridge across the Rhine, built and described by Caesar. In the Roman era, wooden pontoon bridges were often used, known, as indicated, in ancient times (Darius’s crossing of the Hellespont, etc.).
They were often used for architectural decoration of festivities. Thus, under Caligula, a bridge was built across the bay from Bai to Puteoli on two rows of ships three and a half Roman miles long. It was covered with a layer of earth, several hotels were located on it, and a water supply system was installed. Military competitions, feasts, etc. took place here.

Modern architects amaze with their incredible projects - skyscrapers, incredible length bridges, glass buildings. But it is worth paying tribute to the ancient architects, who were very skillful in construction and created buildings that delight people even in the technologically advanced 21st century.

1. St. Hripsime Church

The first country to adopt Christianity as the official state religion was Armenia. It is not surprising that it is in Armenia that some of the oldest and most revered shrines have been preserved, one of which is the Church of St. Hripsime, built in the seventh century in honor of the early Christian saint. Around 300 AD. Hripsime lived in a Roman monastery as a hermit, along with 35 other women. However, she was forced to flee to Armenia because the Roman Emperor Diocletian wanted to marry her. But even there, her beauty attracted the attention of the pagan Armenian king Trdat III, who wanted to take possession of her.

When Hripsime refused, the king became so furious that he ordered Hripsime and all her Christian friends to be stoned to death. After this, Trdat became insane, and when Gregory the Illuminator healed him, the king was baptized, proclaimed Christianity the official religion of the country and built the first chapel in honor of Hripsime.

2. Jokhang

The Buddhist Jokhang Temple, located in the capital Lhasa, is considered the most sacred temple in Tibet. Although the exact date of its construction is not known, it is generally accepted that the temple was created around 639. According to Tibetan legend, King Songtsen Gampo of Tibet married two different women: the Nepalese princess Bhrikuti and the Chinese princess Wencheng.

His Chinese bride brought with her a statue of Buddha, which delighted Gampo so much that he decided to build a temple for her. Overwhelmed by jealousy, Princess Bhrikuti also demanded a temple for herself, after which the Jokhang was built. Another legend about the temple says that it was built at the bottom of a dry lake, over a sleeping demoness whose heart was caged during the construction of the Jokhang.

3. Arch of Titus

Like many of the greatest works of early architecture, the Arch of Titus was built to honor a person, in this case the Roman Emperor Titus. Although his reign was brief (it lasted only two years), Titus was considered a good ruler as well as a famous military leader. It was he who captured Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple.

The triumphal arch of Titus was built in honor of this feat. Its southern bas-relief depicts the triumphal procession of Titus with the spoils captured in Jerusalem, and the northern bas-relief depicts the emperor driving the quadriga. The arch was built by Titus' younger brother Domitian after he succeeded his brother in 81 AD.

4. Seokguram

Seokguram is a rock temple built on the slopes of Mount Thohamsan in Korea. It is famous for the fact that it houses a fairly large statue of Buddha. It was built in the eighth century by the Prime Minister of the State of Silla, Kim Dae-Song, who wanted to honor his parents in this way. Unfortunately, Kim died before the temple was completed, which is today considered one of the finest examples of East Asian Buddhist art.

5. Dhamek

For many centuries, it was considered a great honor among the rulers of ancient India if, after death, their remains were buried in a large circular structure known as a "stupa". One of the oldest stupas in the entire country is Dhamek, located in close proximity to the city of Sarnath. It is believed that this is where Buddha delivered his first sermon after enlightenment. Dhamek was built under the leadership of one of India's greatest rulers, Emperor Ashoka, who was responsible for the spread of Buddhism throughout the continent.

6. Royal Mausoleum of Mauritania

Located near the city of Algiers, the Royal Mausoleum was built for the last two rulers of the ancient kingdom of Mauritania - Juba II and Cleopatra Selene II (their son Ptolemy was the last ruler). It is no coincidence that the mausoleum bears a striking resemblance to the one built by the Roman emperor Augustus. This is how Yuba II wanted to express his loyalty to Rome.

The mausoleum is known under various names, including the “Tomb of a Christian Woman” due to the cruciform shape of the false door. Unfortunately, this structure has suffered significant damage over the centuries: vandals and thieves have destroyed or stolen much of the decorative decorations, and various rulers have attempted to destroy the mausoleum.

7. Pont Sant'Angelo

The pedestrian bridge over the Tiber River in Rome was built during the reign of the Roman Emperor Hadrian, best known for the wall he built to mark Britain's northern border (and also to keep out the Celts). The bridge, which is still in use today, was originally known as Hadrian's Bridge and the name was changed in the Middle Ages after the Archangel Michael allegedly appeared to Pope Gregory the Great in 590 AD. The bridge was originally built to connect the Campus Martius (a square in ancient Rome) with the Mausoleum of Hadrian, now known as Castel Sant'Angelo.

8. Treasury of Atreus

This tomb, built in Mycenae, Greece, is sometimes also called the Tomb of Agamemnon. The Treasury of Atreus is considered one of the greatest achievements of Mycenaean architecture and is still perfectly preserved. Its creator is unknown, as is its purpose, but it is believed that the structure contained the remains of the ruler who built the Mycenaean fortress. What makes the tomb unique is that it has a side chamber connected to the main vaulted chamber.

9. Grinstead Church

Grinstead Church is believed to be the oldest stave church still standing today and may also be the oldest timber structure in all of Europe. The church's most distinctive feature, the white turret, was added sometime in the 1600s (it has been added to and renovated several times since its construction in the 11th century).

10. Brahadisvara Temple

One of the largest temples in India, Brahadeeswara is dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva. What is noteworthy is that it is entirely made of granite (about 130,000 tons were used for construction). Brahadisvara is an incredible feat of ancient builders - for example, the “onion” crown alone, which sits on top of the 61-meter tower, was carved from solid stone and weighs more than 80 tons.

We will continue the story about ancient architecture with interesting information about.