How to restore atrophied muscles. Sport is a great way to overcome yourself

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Willpower is one of the main characteristics of a modern successful person. Some people think it's a character trait. For example, there is such a thing as "strong-willed character." It is often used in relation to a person who has a well-developed fortitude. Indeed, success in life very often depends on willpower, so you should develop it if you want to achieve something in life. The article will discuss how to strengthen and develop willpower.

Why do we need spiritual strength?

Many people force themselves to go to work, to fulfill their duties conscientiously, and they do it daily, for many years. This is the manifestation that needs to be strengthened. A person with a weak will will never achieve much in life.

Society appreciates people who force themselves to work, to go towards the goal, despite the difficulties. A well-developed will helps to overcome problems and obstacles. A strong spirit is able to get rid of shortcomings, bad habits and also beat depression. Therefore, it is very important to know how to develop and strengthen willpower.

Fortitude and psychology

This concept is one of the most difficult in psychology. It is characterized as a person's ability to control and coordinate their actions and behavior. If you characterize the concept in one word, then the word “self-control” is most suitable, it is thanks to him that a person is able to perform or vice versa not to perform certain actions.

In the scientific community there is a judgment that for the development of fortitude it is necessary that a person live in harmony with his soul.

Is it possible to develop and strengthen willpower? How to do it?

The strength of the spirit of each person is a peculiar component of his character, which makes him hardy, strong, and persistent.

Many people on Earth want to know how to develop and strengthen willpower (their life core) in order to achieve their desired goal in life.

Listen to your intuition and inner voice, believe them, follow the impulses of the soul.
Always maintain self-respect.
Have moral values.
Be honest with yourself and those around you.
Do not adapt to other people, in any situation remain yourself.
Don't compare yourself to anyone.
Try not to despair or get upset.
Believe in yourself and in your strengths.
Try to think positively.
Let go of weaknesses.
To be independent.
Don't let failures get you down.
Work hard towards your goal.
Take responsibility for your words and actions, never shift the blame to another person.
Do not listen to the opinions of others if they do not correspond to logic.
Fight inner fears.

Ways to develop your mental strength

Before developing this quality in yourself, you should understand yourself and understand what exactly you want to achieve in life, and only after that begin to act. In psychology, a number of factors have been identified in the presence of which a person can develop willpower in himself.

Understand your desires.
Always soberly assess your capabilities.
Develop an action plan and clearly follow it (it must be flexible, this will help in personal development).
It is necessary to give up bad habits.
Accustom yourself to self-organization and self-discipline, learn to control all your weaknesses and desires.

Mind Strength Exercises

In order to develop and strengthen self-discipline and willpower, you need to start with the simplest requirements for yourself, and then increase them. The most elementary workouts have been developed to help with this:

Exclude from your speech all bad expressions, especially obscene ones.
Get in the habit of doing good things every day.
Engage in self-control, including financial. Keep track of your spending, the quality and quantity of food eaten, the amount of time spent on the Internet. Self-control helps to strengthen important personal qualities.
Plan every day, strictly painting every hour. Try to do everything that was planned.
Before going to bed, analyze the past day, if something could not be done, plan it for tomorrow.

You can try special exercises to train the will, which will strengthen this quality. For example, if your goal is to save money, you should start to track your expenses, write them down and try to spend less than the previous month each month.

If your goal is to lose weight or play more sports, you need to do certain exercises at the same time every day.

All great things start small! Achieving the smallest goals and plans form the character of a person, his attitude to life and, of course, willpower.

How to strengthen and develop willpower and determination in a person? And can it be done at all? This is quite possible if you follow the recommendations of psychologists and follow their advice, and never give up on the path to success. The most important thing in the process of self-improvement is faith in yourself, do not pay attention to gossip and the opinions of others. You need to listen only to your inner voice and those who provide support, in addition, you should always maintain a positive attitude.

Do not be afraid to do something new, the fear of change hinders the development of the individual, prevents the development and strengthening of useful character traits. You should always have a clear plan of action and try to follow all its points.

Try to always maintain self-control, which helps to form the will and character.

There are several rules on how best to develop your inner core.

No. 1. Do what you least want to do first. In the life of each of us there are such days when a lot of things need to be done, and all of them are urgent. You need to start with what you don’t want to do the most. Only laziness always prevents us from coping with overwhelming tasks. Every ordinary person is capable of more than he thinks. Laziness and lack of faith prevent us from bringing many plans to life and realizing our full potential. Only a strong-willed person can pull himself together, believe in his strength and overcome his laziness.

If there is no faith in one's own strength, laziness should be suppressed by force. Persistence is always stronger than our fears. The first victories will bring changes in character. To strengthen willpower, you can start with the smallest thing - with morning jogging, which very well help to form a strong-willed character. Scientists have proven that running develops willpower, starting with overcoming the reluctance to get up early in the morning, and ending with overcoming embarrassment in front of people. There is no need to devote a lot of time to this activity, 30 minutes is enough to strengthen the will and increase vitality.

No. 2. Exercises to develop self-control and fortitude should be constantly performed. Indulgences form weakness of character.

No. 3. For the development of fortitude, a conscious, confident desire to be better is necessary. With the development of the will, the personality, preferences, habits, and even the circle of acquaintances change. Therefore, if there is any doubt about the readiness for change, then it is better to leave everything as it is.

But if the desire to change is conscious and strong, then it is necessary to implement it. For example, there is a desire to pursue a career, for this you need to work hard, and sometimes at night. After several days of work, fatigue appears, more and more thoughts about rest are spinning in my head. It is in these moments that it is necessary to show the strength of the spirit. The words should be repeated: "Man is capable of more than he thinks of himself."

No. 4. During heavy loads, our body needs encouragement, the most effective of them is glucose. You should always have fruits with you, they allow you to restore blood sugar levels and cheer up the body.

How can you train your character, for example, when losing weight

Recently, the issue of completeness and the fight against it has become very relevant. Willpower in the fight against excess weight is chief assistant on the way to harmony and beauty. Without fortitude, even sport does not help to achieve success. Before losing weight, you need to strengthen this quality in yourself.

To obtain a positive result, you must follow the following recommendations that will help strengthen and develop the personality traits necessary for weight loss:

Learning to love yourself (this helps to strengthen the will during the period of weight loss), then there will be an incentive to lose weight.
Teach yourself to eat on a strict schedule. The body will eventually get used to the routine, this will improve digestion, help speed up the metabolism.
Sign up for fitness. In the company of like-minded people it will be much easier to train.
Start training with light exercises, giving them about 10 minutes a day, then increase the load over time.

How can you develop mental strength in a child?

Of course, it is necessary to develop this quality of personality in a child, especially for boys, since it is they who should be the backbone of the family in the future. With the development of willpower in a child, the foundation of a full-fledged personality is formed.

When raising a child, attention should be paid to such factors as:

Cultivate his confidence.
Do not suppress independence in it.
Do not accustom him to the fact that everything in life is easy, explain that efforts must be made to achieve the goal.
Do not indulge all his whims, do not succumb to his manipulations.
To say that all failures are fixable, and this does not mean at all that nothing will work out the second time.
Learn perseverance and perseverance.

It is necessary to teach the child that willpower and our capabilities are much wider than we imagine.

Psychologist Kelly McGonigal's opinion on how to develop and strengthen willpower

McGonical in the book told the reader about the method of training the will. She claims that the strength of the spirit can be developed and strengthened by training it like a muscle.

This once again proves that self-organization and self-discipline, as well as self-development, are capable of making positive changes in a person’s life and developing his iron fortitude.

In his book Willpower. How to develop and strengthen? Kelly McGonigal says that a person's ability to control himself is the response of the brain and body to sudden desires and impulses.

Willpower is a person's response to internal conflict. For example, you are overwhelmed by the desire to smoke another cigarette or eat a larger portion for lunch, but you understand that you can’t do this, and with the last strength you resist momentary weakness. Or do you know what to go to gym and pay the utility bills dusted on the coffee table, but you'd rather sit back."

It took more than one million years to form in the human brain that controls all the processes that distinguish it from animals. For many years, it was believed in the scientific world that the structure of the brain is unchanging. But the scientific studies conducted by neuroscientists have proven that the human brain reacts strongly to any experience, that is, if you solve math problems every day, the brain will be focused specifically on this science, if you learn long poems, then a quick process of memorizing information will form.

Download the book "Willpower. How to develop and strengthen? with torrent it is possible on the Internet.

The book is very interesting and informative for both psychologists and ordinary people. In the psychological treatise “Willpower. How to develop and strengthen? McGonigal Kelly and other psychologists offer the reader the simplest but most effective ways to develop the inner core.

Willpower consumed throughout the day

According to McGonigal, feature willpower is its limitations, restraining oneself and one's reactions, the manifestation of self-control eats up a person's energy reserves.

“Trying to control our tough temper or ignore annoying factors, we draw strength from the same resource”

Some psychologists, including McGonigal, believe that the strength of the spirit can be restored through certain training.

Download the book "Willpower. How to develop and strengthen? epub-format can be on the Internet on any site you like. This scientific work was attributed to the genres of "Practical Psychology" and "Self-Improvement". Readers leave about the book “Willpower. How to develop and strengthen? reviews are only positive. They write that this is a wonderful scientific literary work that helps to understand a lot. Readers say that the book contains a lot of stories about ongoing experiments related to the strength of the human spirit. McGonigal's book provides practical methods for developing one's own fortitude.

How will you?

In his book Willpower. How to develop and strengthen? Kelly McGonigal gives these tips on how to improve your own will:

Manage stress. In stressful situations, a person makes rash decisions, while self-control requires a deep analysis of the situation and circumstances. The psychologist advises in such situations to distract from thoughts.
Formulation of sentences with the phrases "I don't..." and "I can't...". If you have to give up something, you should use the wording “I don’t ...” so as not to set yourself up that you cannot do something. For example, instead of the phrase “I can’t complete this project”, it’s better to formulate “I won’t complete ...”, instead of the phrase “I can’t eat this bun”, “I don’t eat buns” and so on.
Healthy good sleep. McGonigal believes that constant lack of sleep greatly affects the functioning of the brain. In addition, it is believed that people who sleep more than 7 hours are more productive and feel happier.
Practice meditation. Eight weeks of meditation increase self-control and self-awareness, improve attention and concentration.
Healthy food, lifestyle and sports.
Do not be lazy and do not put off everything for later. McGonigal's book Willpower. How to develop and strengthen? it is explained that by telling himself “not now”, “I will do it later”, “I will start running from Monday”, a person is freed from internal torment and remorse, and as a result, does not do anything at all.

This is a list of recommendations given by psychologist and philosopher Kelly McGonigal. If you have a desire to read the original source, you can download the book “Willpower. How to develop and strengthen? pdf format on the Internet, a huge number of sites offer this form of document.

Experiment with marshmallows

Stanford University professor Michel Walter conducted a fascinating experiment in 1970. Willpower was studied in children whose age was from 4 to 6 years. The child was brought into the room, seated at the table, where there was only one marshmallow. He was offered to eat it now or wait a certain time, and then, as a reward, get another treat.

The experiment involved about 650 children, more than half of whom ate marshmallows immediately.

Interesting facts related to the strength of the spirit

Psychologist Baumeister argues that willpower is like a muscle. It either pumps up or weakens from a person's fatigue. He also claims that mental strength is correlated with the ability to make decisions. Psychologist's advice on how to strengthen and develop willpower, as well as how to learn how to make decisions correctly:

Make important decisions only in the morning.
Reinforce the body and brain with glucose from time to time.
Don't make one decision after another. The brain gets tired and, in the end, the last conclusions will be erroneous.
Fatigue is enemy number one for willpower, self-control, and correct reasoning.
Every day you should make a schedule and strictly follow it, this will help save energy and not waste it on trifles.
Be sure to get enough sleep every night. Lack of sleep tends to reduce performance and increase fatigue levels.
When making important decisions, you should listen to your intuition.
See mistakes as a stepping stone to moving forward.
Think positively.
It is easier to make important decisions if there are obligations to other people.

One of the most important characteristics of a person is the presence of fortitude. Without her, he wouldn't be able to get things done. This is our tool that helps to achieve the desired, it can and should be improved, developed and strengthened.

To strengthen the joints and bones, it is necessary to approach the solution of the problem in a complex manner. First of all, nutrition should be normalized, since cartilage and bone tissue needs to be replenished with microelements and vitamins. If the weakness of the knees, elbows and other joints is caused by inflammatory and rheumatic diseases, then medications are used. To improve their function, special exercises are recommended. There are also no less effective methods in traditional medicine.

Nutrition

If a person has problems with the musculoskeletal system, then he needs to adhere to a certain diet, the purpose of which is to normalize weight. This is important because less body weight will have less effect on the bones and joints.

The diet is made taking into account the individual characteristics of the body. It should contain enough minerals, vitamins, trace elements and all nutrients. Weight loss is achieved by reducing the calorie content of food consumed and increasing physical activity. It is impossible to use diuretics and laxatives to obtain the desired result, since they contribute to the removal of fluid from the body, including from cartilage tissue. The ban is also set on fasting, because this will provoke the exhaustion of the body.

The best option diets - eat in small portions, but often. Allow snacks, vegetables, fruits and bread. Drink at least 2 liters during the day pure water. This volume should not be replaced by tea, juices, compotes and other liquids. This is due to the fact that pure water helps to remove toxins from the gastrointestinal tract.

In order to strengthen bones and joints, a child should never neglect breakfast, but it is worth giving up a late dinner. The last meal should be no later than 6 pm or 3-4 hours before bedtime. After each meal, long walks should be taken. This will burn unnecessary calories and strengthen muscles and cartilage.

Harmful and useful products

All foods that contain chemical additives are harmful to the joints. To prevent their condition should be excluded from the diet:

sausages;
canned food;
carbonated drinks;
semi-finished products;
cheeses with a long shelf life;
smoked meats;
fatty meats;
dried fish;
roast;
phosphate-containing products (condensed milk, crab sticks, dough with baking powder, ice cream, processed cheese, white bread), which help to remove calcium from bone tissue;
purine-containing foods (tea, coffee, lentils, liver, chocolate);
sorrel, radish - increase the content of oxalic acid in the body;
sweets.

Beneficial for joints and bones:

1. Calcium. Its main source is fermented milk products (milk, cottage cheese, cheese). In this case, it is desirable to use foods with low fat content.
2. Mucopolysaccharides (seaweed, shrimp, mussels).
3. Collagen. It is found in jelly-like products and is needed as a lubricant for articular surfaces. A large amount of collagen is found in jelly, rich soups and broths, apple peel.
4. Selenium and sulfur. Necessary for the restoration of cartilage tissue and the production of joint fluid. Sulfur is found in fish, beef, chicken, gooseberries, apples, radishes, plums, cabbage, eggs, and onions. Sources of selenium: garlic, seaweed, mussels, shrimp, black bread, cod.
5. Iron. To replenish it, you need to eat greens, beef and apples.
6. Magnesium. This trace element is found in large quantities in prunes, oatmeal, green vegetables, soybeans, apricots, buckwheat, raisins, dark chocolate, and bran.
7. Protein. This nutrient is essential for building and repairing cartilage. It is replenished with milk, meat, peas, fish and dates.

To maintain bones and joints in a normal state, it is necessary to restore the vitamin balance of the body in a timely manner. The B vitamins are extremely important.

Medicines

There are various preparations for maintaining the health of joints and bones. They are available in tablet and capsule form, in the form of solutions for injection.

Means for intravenous administration are used for inflammatory processes in the joints. Hormonal drugs that are effective for swelling and pain:

1. Kenalog. It is intended for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and other connective tissue diseases.
2. Flosteron. Used in rheumatoid diseases.
3. Diprospan. It is used for osteochondrosis, rheumatism.

To compensate for the lubrication of the joints, non-hormonal agents can be used. Hyaluronic acid solutions are effective, but rather expensive.

1. Glucosamine sulfate. The drug is available in capsule form. Designed to relieve pain and inflammation in the treatment of inflammatory diseases of the tendons, joints and joint capsules. Effective in degenerative processes occurring in the intervertebral disc. This drug also promotes the formation of bones, ligaments, nails, skin and strengthens the valves of the heart.
2. L-Proline. This drug is an amino acid necessary for the formation of collagen, accelerating the regeneration of damaged ligaments and cartilage.
3. Turmeric extract. The main ingredient is curcuminoids. Antioxidants are responsible for the yellow color of these substances, which help the body get rid of the negative effects of free radicals.
4. Grape seed extract. It has a similar effect to the previous drug.
5. Niacin (vitamin B3). Necessary for the energy metabolism of cells and the restoration of their DNA structure.
6. Manganese. This mineral plays an important role in many physiological processes in the body. It contributes to the normal development of cartilage tissue, bones and accelerates regenerative processes. It is added to funds aimed at relieving pain in the joints.

To strengthen bones and joints, relieve inflammation, accelerate the healing of cartilage tissue, the following groups of topical agents (gels and ointments) can be used:

anti-inflammatory (Ketoprofen, Nimulid, Diclofenac);
warming up (Kapsicam, Viprosal, Gevkamen);
homeopathic (Traumeel, Gepatrombin, Badyaga forte, Zeel T);
chondroprotectors (Chondroitin-Akos, Artrocin, Chondroxide);
medicines based on salicylic acid (Nizhvisal B, Salvisar).

Exercises

To strengthen the joints, static movements are recommended, when the muscles are in a tense state without movement for a long time, and dynamic ones with muscle tension with a large amplitude of movement. When performing therapeutic exercises, it is necessary to observe the technique.

A day later, you can practice the following set of exercises, which is aimed at normalizing the state of various joints:

1. Shoulder. You need to pick up dumbbells weighing no more than 2 kg or a plastic container with water, stretch them out in front of you and lift them up. In this position, they remain until the onset of a slight burning sensation in the shoulders.
2. Elbow. To develop the elbow joint, it is recommended to use an expander. You can perform a simple exercise: move your arms to the sides, pulling the expander and fixing it in this position. Continue until there is slight fatigue in the elbow.
3. Knees. The best option is to do shallow, slow squats on 2 legs with a gradual change in load between the legs. During the exercise, the feet should not come off the floor.
4. Wrists. You need to take a small load, fasten it to a rope, and tie the other end to a stick. Perform stick spins. For another exercise, use a light dumbbell. It is taken in the hand, which is placed on the knee with the outer side so that the hand does not touch the leg, after which the dumbbell is lifted and lowered. The exercise is repeated until there is a slight feeling of fatigue and burning in the joints.
5. Ankle. The legs alternately put but socks and perform circular movements in the ankle, directing the feet outward, and then inward.
6. Fingers. You need to pick up an expander or a small rubber ball that compresses. They are squeezed for 10 minutes every day.

Hip Strengthening Exercises

In the first days of exercise, pain in the joints may be felt. It shouldn't be scary. As the cartilage and articular surfaces strengthen, the discomfort will subside.

Folk remedies

To strengthen the joint and bones at home, you can use recipes folk remedies:

1. Means based on eggshell. It contains a large amount of calcium, which is absorbed more easily and faster than obtained from foods. It is necessary to take the shell from one egg, wash and chop. It is mixed with 1 teaspoon of honey or lemon juice. The resulting remedy is taken orally 1-2 teaspoon 3 times a day. The course of treatment is 1 month.
2. Decoction of dill and parsley. These plants are useful in the treatment of osteoporosis, for the skeletal system. You need to take 100 g of ingredients, fill them with 300 ml of boiling water, insist for 2-3 hours. The drink in a cooled and filtered form is taken 100 ml 3 times a day.
3. Pumpkin seeds. This product is enough to eat fresh in a handful daily.
4. A decoction of honey and St. John's wort. You need to take 1 teaspoon of St. John's wort and brew it like a tea. The drink is diluted with a teaspoon of honey and drunk 3 times a day.
5. Infusion of ginger. For the preparation of a healing agent, the roots of the plant are used, which have an anti-inflammatory effect due to the presence of phenol and gingerol. You need to take the raw material, grind it. An infusion is prepared from 1-2 teaspoons of the resulting ingredient. To do this, it is poured with a glass of boiling water and left to brew until it cools. The agent is drunk in strained form 3 times a day, 100 ml each. It can be used as a lotion for applying directly to painful areas. Ginger root is not recommended for use during pregnancy without consulting a doctor. It is contraindicated in people with blood clotting problems.
6. Infusion of white willow bark. This remedy has an analgesic effect due to salicin. In addition, white willow bark contains flavonoids, tannins and phenols, helps to relieve inflammation in the joints. To prepare a healing infusion, you need to take 2-3 g of dried, crushed raw materials, pour boiling water and insist for several minutes. The resulting product is drunk in strained form, 50 ml 3-4 times a day. The course of treatment is 3-4 weeks. However, white willow bark infusion is undesirable for children under 12 years of age, pregnant women in the third trimester and breastfeeding mothers.

Before using any folk remedies, you should consult a doctor. This is especially necessary when combined with drug therapy.

The coup d'etat in December 1851 allowed Louis Bonaparte to seize power and then, in 1852, declare himself Emperor Napoleon III. In the history of France, a period began that, by analogy with the empire of Napoleon I, was called the “Second Empire”.

reaction mode

The Bonapartist regime destroyed almost all the democratic achievements of the revolution of 1848. Under the pretext of fighting secret societies, the government crushed all democratic organizations. Political clubs were banned, freedom of the press was stifled, opposition newspapers and magazines were closed, and the rest were placed under strict police control; editors of newspapers and magazines were approved by the Minister of the Interior. Schools, higher educational institutions, theaters were also placed under the supervision of the police. The authorities persecuted republican-minded teachers.

A huge police apparatus controlled all spheres of life. “They have strangled the right, they have silenced freedom, they have dishonored the banner, they are trampling the people under their feet and are very happy!” - Victor Hugo wrote indignantly during these years about the Bonapartist rulers.

The system of state administration was designed to increase the role of the emperor, who held real power, and to nullify the importance of representative institutions. The latter consisted of three chambers: the Legislative Corps elected by the population, which did not have the right to legislative initiative, the Senate, appointed by the emperor from the highest dignitaries and clergy, and also the State Council appointed, which developed laws on the basis of projects proposed to it by the emperor.

The policy of Louis Napoleon expressed the interests of the big bourgeoisie of France. However, in the 1950s and the first half of the 1960s, the Bonapartist regime also enjoyed support from the wealthy and a significant part of the small-owner peasantry. "Historical tradition," wrote Marx, "has given rise to the mystical belief of the French peasants that a man named Napoleon will return to them all the blessings they have lost." But Marx added: "The Bonaparte dynasty is not a representative of the revolutionary, but of the conservative peasant..."

Second Empire

International

Source: http://o-france.ru/vtoraya-imperiya.html.

in the years
second empire and its politics
second empire in france
which helped to strengthen the economic position of France
the second empire in France ceased to exist under
the main direction of the domestic policy of the second empire

Second empire

Using the sharp struggle that unfolded between the monarchist factions, on the night of December 2, 1851Louis Napoleon carried out a coup d'état. A state of siege was introduced in the capital. Both the new economic upsurge and the international situation contributed to the success of the Bonapartist revolution.

The restoration of the empire was carried out officially on December 2, 1852: Louis Napoleon became emperor Napoleon III .

In France, a regime of Bonapartist dictatorship was established, a special form of state power, the peculiarity of which was that, while governing the country by methods of military-political pressure, contributing to the strengthening of the bureaucratic apparatus, the revival of the power of the Catholic clergy, at the same time, it constantly maneuvered between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. This allowed her to impersonate a nationwide state power.

Napoleon III was not slow to destroy the democratic gains of the revolution, retaining only universal suffrage. The law of February 17, 1852 made it impossible for a democratic press to exist. The clergy concentrated in their hands teaching in schools. The Republican Party was crushed. Government Second Empire in every possible way contributed to the prosperity of the big bourgeoisie, big landowners. The Crimean War (1853-1856), launched by France against Russia, was the first war of the Bonapartist empire. It strengthened the international position of the Second Empire.

In 1857-1858, an economic crisis began in Bonapartist France, which engulfed the coal, metallurgical industry, and railway construction. He caused discontent among all sections of the population, including the bourgeoisie. With the policy pursued towards Italy, as well as the conclusion of a trade agreement with England, Napoleon III set against himself the Catholic clergy, the big bourgeoisie, and the masses.

The economic crisis was accompanied by the political crisis of the Second Empire, which led to its collapse. The failure of the Mexican adventure received a great response in 1867. Relations between France and the United States and England deteriorated. The discontent of the workers and the petty bourgeoisie grew. The strike struggle of the proletariat intensified noticeably. In an attempt to defuse the tense atmosphere to the limit, the government took a number of measures aimed at strengthening the position of the empire.

In the second half of 1868, a military reform was carried out, the publication of the so-called liberal laws on the press and meetings was allowed. However, the organization of two trials against International only exacerbated the political situation in the country. The most remarkable phenomenon of the second half of 1868 was the numerous public meetings that began in Paris, which played a significant role in the social and political life of France in 1868-1870.

Franco-Prussian War

On July 19, 1870, war was officially declared on Prussia. With its help, Napoleon III hoped, on the one hand, to rehabilitate himself in the eyes of those dissatisfied with his inner and foreign policy all sectors of French society, on the other hand, to suppress the revolutionary spirit of the French working class.

The French command relied on a blitzkrieg. But, having missed a favorable moment for the offensive, the army turned to a defensive war. As a result of the first three defeats of the French army, German troops occupied part of Alsace and Lorraine. To this, the masses of Paris responded with anti-government demonstrations.

Military defeats in August 1870 put forward as a central issue the problem of organizing and arming the National Guard. However, the government opposed the desire of the Parisians to arm themselves. On September 2, at Sedan, the German army inflicted a decisive defeat on the French troops. The battle lost at Sedan, which ended with the surrender of Napoleon III, led to September Revolution of 1870 .

By the way, also interesting:

Source: http://o-france.ru/vtoraya-imperiya.html

which made it possible to strengthen the economic position of France during the years of the second empire

The policy of Louis Napoleon expressed the interests of the big bourgeoisie of France. However, in the 1950s and the first half of the 1960s, the Bonapartist regime also enjoyed support from the prosperous and a significant part of the small-owner peasantry. “Historical tradition,” Marx wrote, “has given rise to the mystical belief of the French peasants that a man named Napoleon will return to them all the lost blessings.” But Marx added: “The Bonaparte dynasty is not the representative of the revolutionary, but of the conservative peasant. "(K. Marx, Louis Bonaparte's Eighteenth Brumaire, K. Marx and F. Engels, Op. vol. p. 208.)

By ruthlessly suppressing the workers' and democratic movement in the country, the government of the Second Empire was fulfilling the main demand of the reactionary elite of the bourgeoisie. The peculiarities of Bonapartism were the concentration of full power in the hands of the government and the desire to give it a supra-partisan, supra-class external form. One of the ways to create the appearance of a “supra-class”, “nationwide” nature of power was popular voting - plebiscites, to which the government of Napoleon III resorted more than once. Carried out in an environment of brutal police terror, bribery and vote-count fraud, these plebiscites gave the government the opportunity to invoke popular approval.

For the same purpose of maneuvering and deceiving the masses, Napoleon III restored universal suffrage (for men over 21 years old) in elections to the Legislative Corps. The system of government candidates, police pressure on voters invariably ensured that supporters of the government had the majority of seats in the Legislative Corps.

Defining the essence of Bonapartism as a special form of the dictatorship of the big bourgeoisie, Lenin wrote: The main historical sign of Bonapartism: maneuvering state power based on the military (on the worst elements of the army) between two hostile classes and forces that more or less balance each other. 200.) These two forces in France in the middle of the XIX century. were the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.

Using the “carrot and stick” method, the government of Napoleon III persecuted independent truly proletarian organizations and at the same time encouraged workers’ societies “approved” by the government, which avoided strikes and allowed businessmen and priests into their membership (as “honorary members”). Such organizations enjoyed the patronage of the authorities and received free premises.

Napoleon III created a splendid court in which adventurers like the executioner of the Algerian people, Marshal Saint-Arnaud, who in the early 1950s held the post of Minister of War, played the main role, or rogues, people with a dark past, like Louis-Napoleon Persigny, an old accomplice in adventures, who received from the emperor the title of duke and the post of minister of the interior. “With money in one hand and iron in the other, we will be able to lead the country far,” Persigny said cynically, justifying the policy of the Bonapartist government, which sought to combine corruption with terror.

Source: http://proffigpzs.ucoz.net/publ/73_vtoraja_imperija_vo_francii_osnovnye_cherty_francuzskogo_bonapartizma/1-1-0-79

second empire and its politics

Empire and Second Republic

France / Empire and Second Republic

On November 9-10, 1799 (Brumaire 18 according to the republican calendar), General Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup d'état. He became the first consul of the French Republic and concentrated all power in his hands. The big industrial and financial bourgeoisie of France, as well as the French peasantry, were on the side of the Bonapartist upheaval and the entire political regime that was subsequently created. The new political regime was reflected in the constitution of 1799.

Real power was actually concentrated in the hands of one person - Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1802, Napoleon was declared consul for life, and in 1804 he was proclaimed emperor. The First Republic was replaced by the First Empire.

By 1812, Napoleon Bonaparte had conquered almost all of Western and Central Europe. The campaign of the French army in Russia, which began in June 1812, ended in failure. The Battle of Borodino and the occupation of Moscow by the French troops seemed to be evidence of Napoleon's victory. However, a streak of setbacks and defeats soon began. The French suffered an acute shortage of food and equipment. On October 6, Napoleon left Moscow and was forced to retreat along the devastated Old Smolensk road, pressed by the vanguard of the Russian army and subjected to constant attacks by partisans and Cossacks. In the battle of the Berezina on November 14-16, most of the French army was destroyed or captured, and by mid-December, its remnants were expelled from Russia.

In October 1813 near Leipzig in the "Battle of the Nations" Napoleon was defeated. In March 1814, the troops of the anti-French coalition entered Paris. On April 6, Napoleon abdicated, and at the same time the Senate called Louis XVIII to the throne. The Peace of Paris and the Congress of Vienna legalized the restoration of the Bourbons. An agreement was signed, according to which the imperial title was retained for Napoleon, and the island of Elba was transferred to him. France was deprived of all territories conquered after 1795.

Not wanting to cede power, on March 1, 1815, at the head of a detachment of 900 soldiers, the former French emperor landed on the continent, and on March 20 entered Paris (“Hundred Days” by Napoleon Bonaparte). The victorious powers entered into another alliance against France. On June 18, 1815, Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo. Bonaparte again abdicated in favor of his son Napoleon II. Napoleon then surrendered to the British and was exiled to Saint Helena.

However, the rights of Napoleon II were not recognized by the victorious powers that supported the Bourbon Restoration regime. Louis XVIII returned to Paris, and after the death of the childless king in 1824, his younger brother Charles X (1824-1830) inherited the French throne. The Restoration regime had to reckon with some important achievements of the revolution (the redistribution of landed property in favor of the peasantry, the Napoleonic civil code, the new administrative order).

As a result of the July Revolution of 1830, the top of the financial bourgeoisie came to power and placed last king France Louis-Philippe (1830-1848), a representative of the younger Orleans branch of the Bourbons. Born out of the Revolution of 1830, the July Monarchy (August 1830–February 1848) was a moderately liberal political regime.

Royal power relied on the top of the bourgeoisie - the financial oligarchy and the Chamber of Deputies elected on the basis of a high property qualification (hence another definition of the July regime - "qualified monarchy"). Louis-Philippe himself called the political system he created the "golden mean" between the "outrages" of democracy and the "injustices" of unlimited royal power. In the field of foreign policy, the July Monarchy pursued a cautious line, focusing on an alliance with Great Britain. Avoiding excessive activity in European affairs, Louis-Philippe began an active colonial policy. Under him, Algeria was conquered, which became the "pearl" of the colonial empire of France. Internal contradictions, the dissatisfaction of the industrialists with the undivided domination of the financiers, the development of the labor movement, starting with the uprisings of the Lyon weavers in 1831 and 1834, the growth of republican sentiment in the country, exacerbated by the economic crisis, undermined the strength of the July Monarchy, which was overthrown as a result February Revolution 1848 proclaiming the Second Republic.

The motto of the Second Republic was the words: "Family, Labor, Property, Public order." At the same time, the constitution left inviolable many of the former state institutions - municipalities, the court and the army. The most significant of the innovations was that universal suffrage (for men) was legalized.

The revolutionary government sought to mitigate the severity of social conflicts by developing reform projects. However, these measures were too late, and in June 1848 a bloody conflict broke out, during which the labor movement was crushed.

Napoleon I's nephew Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte achieved his election as president of the country. With the support of the military, on December 2, 1851, he carried out a coup d'etat and in December 1852, after a plebiscite, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte received the title of emperor under the name of Napoleon III.

The authoritarian regime of the Second Empire created the appearance of a nationwide state, standing above the interests of classes and parties. In reality, he relied on the prosperous peasantry, the bureaucracy, the army, the police and the Catholic clergy. The establishment of the Second Empire coincided with an economic boom, which helped to strengthen the position of the regime. Napoleon III pursued an ambitious foreign policy. In February 1854, France, in alliance with Great Britain and the Kingdom of Sardinia (since 1855), entered on the side of Turkey in the Eastern (Crimean) war against Russia and won it. Having defeated Austria in 1859, Napoleon III annexed Nice and Savoy to France and contributed to the unification of Italy. He organized a number of successful colonial expeditions - to China, Annam and Syria, but was defeated in Mexico. The hegemonic aspirations of Napoleon III led to the gradual isolation of France in Europe, and the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871 plunged the country into a national catastrophe. The defeat of the French army at Sedan, where Napoleon III, along with an army of 100,000, surrendered, led to the September Revolution of 1870, which overthrew the regime of the Second Empire.

As a result of the revolutionary speech, power in Paris passed to the Republicans, the political regime of the Third Republic began, which was based on the constitution of 1875 (it was in force for 65 years - the longest period for a political regime in France after 1789).

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Source: http://www.hyno.ru/tom1/1725.html

second empire in france

Page 14 of 18

The time of the empire is a chain of wars, aggressions, seizures and colonial expeditions of French troops in Africa and Europe, Asia, America, Oceania in order to establish France's hegemony in Europe and strengthen its colonial power. Military operations continued in Algeria. The Algerian question played an ever greater role in the life of France. In 1853 it became the colony of New Caledonia. Since 1854, military expansion was carried out in Senegal. French troops, along with the British, fought in China. France actively participated in the "opening" in 1858 of Japan to foreign capital. In 1858, the French invasion of South Vietnam began. The French company began construction of the Suez Canal in 1859 (opened in 1869).

Franco-Prussian War.

The ruling court circles of Napoleon III decided to raise the prestige of the dynasty through a victorious war with Prussia. Under the auspices of Prussia, the unification of the German states was successfully carried out. At the eastern borders of France, a powerful militaristic state grew up - the North German Union, the ruling circles of which openly sought to capture the rich and strategically important regions of France - Alsace and Lorraine.

Napoleon III decided to prevent the final creation of a unified German state by the war with Prussia. The Chancellor of the North German Union, O. Bismarck, was intensively preparing for the final stage of the reunification of Germany. The saber-rattling in Paris only made it easier for Bismarck to implement his plan to create a unified German empire through war with France. In contrast to France, where the Bonapartist military leaders made a lot of noise, but cared little about the combat effectiveness of the army, in Berlin they secretly but purposefully prepared for war, re-equipped the army and carefully developed strategic plans for upcoming military operations.

On July 19, 1870, France declared war on Prussia. Napoleon III, starting the war, poorly calculated his forces. "We are ready, we are completely ready," the French Minister of War assured members of the Legislative Corps. It was bragging. Disorder and confusion reigned everywhere. The army did not have a general leadership, there was no definite plan for the conduct of the war. Not only soldiers, but also officers needed the bare necessities. The officers were given 60 francs each to purchase revolvers from merchants. There were not even maps of the theater of operations on the territory of France, since it was assumed that the war would be fought on the territory of Prussia.

From the very first days of the war, the overwhelming superiority of Prussia was revealed. She was ahead of the French in the mobilization of troops and their concentration near the border. The Prussians had an almost double numerical superiority. Their command persistently carried out a predetermined war plan.

The Prussians almost immediately cut the French army into two parts: one part, under the command of Marshal Bazin, retreated to the fortress of Metz and was besieged there, the other, under the command of Marshal MacMahon and the emperor himself, under the onslaught of a large Prussian army was thrown back to Sedan. Near Sedan, not far from the Belgian border, on September 2, 1870, a battle took place that decided the outcome of the war. The Prussian army defeated the French. Three thousand French fell in the battle of Sedan. MacMahon's army of 80,000 and Napoleon III himself were taken prisoner.

The news of the captivity of the emperor shook Paris. On September 4, crowds of people filled the streets of the capital. At their request, France was proclaimed a republic. Power passed to the Provisional Government of National Defense, which represented a broad bloc of political forces in opposition to the empire, from monarchists to radical republicans. In response, Prussia made frankly predatory demands.

The republicans who came to power considered it dishonorable to accept the Prussian conditions. After all, even during the revolution of the late 18th century, the republic had earned the reputation of a patriotic regime, and the republicans were afraid that the republic would be suspected of betraying national interests. But the scale of the losses suffered by France in this war did not leave hope for an early victory. On September 16, Prussian troops appeared in the vicinity of Paris. Within a short time they occupied the entire north-east of France. For some time, France remained defenseless against the enemy. The government's efforts to restore military capacity only bore fruit towards the end of 1870, when the Army of the Loire was formed south of Paris.

In a similar situation, the revolutionaries of 1792 called on France for a popular war of liberation. But the fear of the threat of the escalation of the national liberation war into a civil one kept the government from such a step. It came to the conclusion that the conclusion of peace was inevitable on the terms offered by Prussia, but was waiting for this favorable moment, but for now it was imitating national defense.

As soon as it became known about the government's new attempt to enter into peace negotiations, an uprising broke out in Paris. On October 31, 1870, soldiers of the National Guard arrested and held the ministers hostage for several hours until they were rescued by troops loyal to the government.

Now the government was more concerned with appeasing restless Parisians than with national defense. The uprising of 31 October thwarted the plan for an armistice prepared by Adolphe Thiers. French troops unsuccessfully tried to break the blockade of Paris. By the beginning of 1871, the position of the besieged capital seemed hopeless. The government decided that it was impossible to delay further with the conclusion of peace.

On January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles of the French Kings, the Prussian King Wilhelm I was proclaimed German Emperor, and on January 28, an armistice was signed between France and united Germany. Under its terms, the forts of Paris and the army's stockpiles of weapons were transferred to the Germans. The final peace was signed in Frankfurt on May 10, 1873. Under its terms, France ceded Alsace and Lorraine to Germany, and also had to pay 5 billion francs indemnity.

The Parisians were extremely outraged by the terms of the peace, but despite the seriousness of disagreements with the government, no one in Paris thought about an uprising, much less prepared it. The uprising was provoked by the actions of the authorities. After the blockade was lifted, the payment of remuneration to the soldiers of the National Guard was stopped. In a city whose economy has not yet recovered from the consequences of the blockade, thousands of residents were left without a livelihood. The pride of the inhabitants of Paris was hurt by the decision of the National Assembly to choose Versailles as its place of residence.

Paris Commune

On March 18, 1871, by order of the government, troops attempted to capture the artillery of the National Guard. The soldiers were stopped by the inhabitants and retreated without a fight. But the guardsmen seized the generals Lecomte and Tom, who commanded government troops, and shot them on the same day.

Thiers ordered the evacuation of government offices to Versailles.

On March 26, elections were held for the Paris Commune (as the city government of Paris was traditionally called). Of the 85 members of the Council of the Commune, most were workers or their recognized representatives.

The Commune declared its intention to carry out profound reforms in many areas.

First of all, they took a number of measures to alleviate the situation of the poor inhabitants of Paris. But many global plans failed to materialize. The main concern of the Commune at that moment was the war. At the beginning of April clashes began between the federates, as the fighters of the armed detachments of the Commune called themselves, with the troops of Versailles. The forces were obviously not equal.

Opponents seemed to compete in cruelty and excesses. The streets of Paris were covered in blood. Unparalleled vandalism was carried out by the Communards during street fighting. In Paris, they deliberately set fire to the city hall, the Palace of Justice, the Tuileries Palace, the Ministry of Finance, the house of Thiers. Countless cultural and artistic treasures perished in the fire. Arsonists also attempted on the treasures of the Louvre.

"Bloody Week" May 21-28 ended the short history of the Commune. On May 28, the last barricade on Rampono Street fell. The Paris Commune lasted only 72 days. Very few Communards managed to escape the ensuing massacre by leaving France. Among the Communard emigrants was a French worker, poet, author of the proletarian anthem "The Internationale" - Eugene Pottier.

Additional Information

Source: http://www.veter-stranstvii.ru/istorija-franzii/ist-francii-kratko.html?start=13

which helped to strengthen the economic position of France

France in the late 19th - early 20th century.

After the Franco-German war of 1870-1871. France's economic situation was rather difficult, as she paid an indemnity of 5 billion francs. The political situation was even more difficult. Monarchist factions fought for power. The National Assembly elected in 1871 consisted predominantly of monarchists.

The monarchist Thiers was elected the first president of the republic, but the demands of a tougher policy on the part of the monarchists forced him to resign.

1875 The Constituent Assembly adopted a new Constitution. The article on the establishment of a republican system was adopted by a majority of just one vote. The president received broad rights, up to the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, and was elected for seven years at the joint meetings of members of both chambers. Executive power belonged to the President and the Council of Ministers. The Senate was elected by the representatives of the municipalities and was a counterbalance to the Chamber of Deputies, which was elected for four years by universal secret suffrage of citizens over 21 years of age. Women and military personnel were disenfranchised. This constitution was in effect until 1940.

The monarchists did not lose hope to change the Constitution and establish a monarchy, while the republicans sought to strengthen the republic. In the parliamentary elections of 1876, the Republicans won the majority in parliament. It was then that July 14 (Bastille Day) was declared a holiday of the French Republic, and the French national song "La Marseillaise" became the national anthem. The Republicans achieved the adoption of a law on the amnesty of the participants in the Paris Commune, the legalization of trade unions.

As taxes increased on the bulk of the population, as a result, the popularity of moderate Republicans fell.

The growth of dissatisfaction with the policy of the Republicans was used by monarchically minded officers and landowners. This was facilitated by the political crises that arose in France in the 1980s and 1990s. The crisis associated with the construction of the Panama Canal was very acute: construction turned out to be more difficult than expected, and besides, contractors embezzled funds. The board of the company carried out the construction of the canal, issued a larger number of additional shares for sale. To obtain permission for this, it bribed senators, deputies, government officials, ministers, spending several million francs on bribes. The case gained publicity, but the main perpetrators were not punished. "Panama" has gone down in history as a synonym for a dirty scam, bribery, bribery and corruption.

1894 France witnessed another political crisis. A military court sentenced to life imprisonment Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jew by nationality, accused of divulging military secrets of the French army in Germany. The condemnation of Dreyfus was used by reactionary elements for chauvinistic and anti-Semitic propaganda. Subsequently, it became known that Dreyfus suffered innocently and was deliberately convicted. The Dreyfus Affair split the country into two camps. The writer Emile Zola published an open letter to the President of the Republic, in which he accused the General Staff, the court and the witnesses of lying. For this, Zola was sentenced in absentia to a fine and arrest, but he managed to emigrate. The case was taken to Parliament. The population of France supported either the "Dreyfusards" or the "anti-Dreyfusards". Only in 1906 Dreyfus was fully rehabilitated. The Dreyfus affair was the last major attempt by monarchist circles to discredit the Republicans. In 1899, a coalition government of the Republicans was created, headed by Waldek Rousseau.

The growth of French industry in the late XIX - early XX century. compared with England, Germany and the United States slowed down, which was a consequence of the Franco-German war: the payment of indemnities, the loss of Alsace and Lorraine, as well as the poverty of its natural resources. In terms of industrial development, it ranked fourth, in terms of banking concentration, it was ahead of other countries, although the metallurgical and textile industries were on the rise.

France tirelessly expanded its colonial expansion: its troops captured Tunisia, Indochina, Madagascar, Somalia, part of Guinea, Sudan, Mauritania, Dahomey, Upper Volta, Congo, Chad.

The growing tension in German-French relations forced France to seek reconciliation with England. In 1899, an Anglo-French treaty was concluded on the delimitation of Sudan.

The result of the next rapprochement between England and France was the conclusion of 1904 "cordial agreement", which provided for the delimitation of spheres of influence in the colonial world. France received the "right" to seize Morocco. This led to extremely sharp conflicts with Germany, but the support of England and Russia allowed France to impose a protectorate treaty on the Sultan of Morocco.

From 1902 to 1912, the Radical Party, the most influential party in France at that time, was in power. The radicals were opponents of the clericals1, advocated the democratization of the republic and the satisfaction of the economic and social demands of the people, banned the activities of some religious Catholic associations, achieved the separation of the school from the church and the church from the state, introduced a mandatory day off, pension legislation, and social security in case of disability.

The 1912 elections brought victory to the right-wing forces, led by the moderate Republican Raymond Poincaré, who headed the government. 1918. he was elected President of France. He went to the polls under the slogan of preparing for war against Germany. France passed a law on three years of service in the army, which meant practical preparation for war.

The murder on the eve of the First World War of the socialist Jean Jaurès, the best fighter against militarism, testified that the ruling forces of France were ready to drag the French people into a bloody drama.

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Source: http://studbooks.net/40880/istoriya/frantsiya_v_kontse_nachale

domestic politics of the second empire in france

France during the Second Empire (1852 - 1870).

After the coup on December 2, 1851, the period of the Second Empire began in France. The empire was officially proclaimed a year later, on December 2, 1852. The Republican Party was crushed, the liberal press was almost strangled, local self-government was liquidated, and the influence of the Legislative Corps decreased. Although the electoral reform was not canceled, however, pressure was put on voters, official candidates from the authorities were imposed on them. Power was in the hands of Napoleon III and the highest dignitaries close to him. Among them the greatest influence the Duke of Morny (half-brother of the emperor, was chairman of the Legislative Corps), Count Walevsky (illegitimate son of Napoleon I, was Minister of Foreign Affairs) and Minister of State Eugene Rouer used.

Despite the economic crisis of 1857 and 1866-1867. This period was favorable for the French economy. At this time, the country ended industrial revolution that began at the end of the last century. The volume of industrial production has tripled in two decades. The number of steam engines quadrupled (from 6,080 in 1852 to 26,221 in 1869). Heavy industry developed rapidly. In terms of the pace of development, it was ahead of the light one, but in terms of production volume it still lagged behind it. Mechanization and centralization in industry intensified, but by the end of the period, small and medium-sized enterprises still prevailed in France. During this period, a large association of metallurgical enterprises "Comite de Forge" was created. In 1857, virtually all of France's railway lines were in the hands of six major companies.

In France, money capital increased rapidly, and financial activity intensified. The Paris Bourse gained great influence in the financial world. In 1851, securities worth 11 billion francs were quoted on it, in 1869 - in the amount of 33 billion francs. The governments of many states applied for loans to the Paris Stock Exchange. The operations of the French Bank increased by more than 5 times. Of great importance in the country's economy was the General Society of Movable Credit, founded in 1852.

As a result of success in industry and the economy, the property contrast among the population of France intensified. The situation of the workers and peasants did not improve. In connection with the enlargement of enterprises, the small and middle strata of the bourgeoisie were ruined. Emigration to Algeria, America, European countries was widespread. In the early 1950s, the labor movement was not active, due to its recent suppression on the one hand, and the economic upsurge on the other. The theory of Proudhon was popular among the workers, who was against the strike movement and the participation of workers in the political struggle. The economic crisis of 1857 led to a decline in production and the workers became more active again. 5 Republican deputies were elected to the Legislative Corps. In January 1858, an assassination attempt was made on Napoleon III. After that, repression fell upon the Republicans. The Public Safety Act was passed, making it possible to arrest and send into exile hundreds of Democrats. France was divided into 5 military governorships.

Opposition grew. In 1860, France concluded a trade agreement with England, according to which duties on the import of French goods to England and English goods to France were significantly reduced. The latter was unprofitable for the French bourgeoisie, which could not yet successfully compete with the British. To ease the discontent, the government of Napoleon III carried out a number of minor liberal reforms, but this did not help. In 1863, in the elections to the Legislative Corps, the Republican Party collected 2 million votes out of 7.2 possible and won 35 seats. The government decided to make some concessions, and in May 1864 the law on the prohibition of strikes, issued in 1791, was repealed. In September 1864, the First International arose, sections of the International began to be created in Paris and other cities. After the economic crisis of 1867, dissatisfaction with the government intensified even more. The labor movement began to turn to the left: many sections of the French International were headed by socialists (instead of Proudhonists).

Napoleon III concluded an agreement with the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia on joint actions against Austria. For this, France was to receive Savoy and Nice, and Sardinia - the possessions of Austria in northern Italy. The war began in 1859. After the first victories, France changed its position: it stopped hostilities and concluded a separate truce with Austria, leaving Venice to it. On the one hand, France was afraid that Prussia and other German states would intervene in the war on the side of Austria. On the other hand, France did not benefit from the existence of a strong united Italy. Under the terms of the treaty, Lombardy was freed from Austrian oppression, Venice remained under the rule of Austria, France received Savoy and Nice.

Together with England, France led in 1858 - 1860. attack on China. In the late 50s - early 60s, France captured Saigon and part of South Vietnam, established a protectorate over Cambodia.

In the second half of the 60s, France suffered setbacks in foreign policy. Thus, the Mexican expedition failed. In 1863, French troops occupied the capital of Mexico, overthrew the republican government and turned the country into a puppet empire. Austrian Archduke Maximilian became emperor. But in 1867, at the request of the United States, French troops were withdrawn from Mexico. After that, the Republicans, led by President Benito Juarez, overthrew and shot Emperor Maximilian. The collapse of the Mexican Expedition further increased public dissatisfaction with the government.

Relations between France and Prussia worsened. The French government sought to take possession of Belgium, Luxembourg and the left bank of the Rhine. Prussia, in turn, planned to capture Alsace and Lorraine. In 1867, some rapprochement between France and Austria began. A project was developed for a military alliance against Prussia, consisting of Austria, Italy and France. However, the project was not implemented. France sought to prevent the unification of Germany, for which it tried to create a South German Union under its protectorate. However, this was not carried out either.

Relations with Russia also deteriorated. Russia sought the abolition of the Paris Treaty, which forbade Russia to keep a navy on the Black Sea and build fortifications there. Russia was also dissatisfied with the intervention of France in the Polish question during the uprising of 1863-1864.

As a result, by the end of the 60s, France found itself in a state of almost complete diplomatic isolation.

In 1869, regular elections to the Legislative Corps were held in France. The Republicans won: they received 3.3 million votes out of 7.8 million. Among the elected Republican deputies were Rochefort and Gambetta. To slow down the growth of the opposition movement in the country on January 2, 1870, a new government was formed, headed by the liberal Olivier. However, the opposition movement did not stop. On January 12, 1870, the funeral of Victor Noir, a republican journalist who was murdered by Prince Pierre Bonaparte (a relative of Napoleon III), took place. The funeral turned into a massive anti-government demonstration. Unrest among the workers continued to grow.

On July 19, 1870, the war with Prussia began. On September 2, 1870, the French army capitulated, and on September 4, a new revolution overthrew the empire of Napoleon III and revived the republic (for more details on these events, see a separate chapter).

Source: http://historyworld.narod.ru/NovVremya/Fr1852-1870.htm

What were the characteristics of the second empire?

BYZANTINE EMPIRE

BYZANTINE EMPIRE, the name of the state that arose in the 4th century, accepted in historical science. on the territory of the eastern part of the Roman Empire and existed until the middle of the 15th century. In the Middle Ages, it was officially called the "Empire of the Romans" ("Romans"). The economic, administrative and cultural center of the Byzantine Empire was Constantinople, well located at the junction of the European and Asian provinces of the Roman Empire, at the intersection of the most important trade and strategic routes, land and sea.

The appearance of Byzantium as an independent state was prepared in the bowels of the Roman Empire. It was a complex and lengthy process that stretched over a century. Its beginning goes back to the era of the crisis of the 3rd century. which undermined the foundations of Roman society. The formation of Byzantium during the 4th century completed the era of the development of ancient society, and in most of this society, tendencies to preserve the unity of the Roman Empire prevailed. The process of separation proceeded slowly and implicitly and ended in 395 with the formal formation of two states on the site of a single Roman Empire, each headed by its own emperor. By this time, the difference between internal and external problems facing the eastern and western provinces of the Roman Empire was clearly revealed, which largely determined their territorial demarcation. Byzantium included the eastern half of the Roman Empire along a line that ran from the western part of the Balkans to Cyrenaica. Differences were also reflected in the spiritual life, in ideology, as a result, from the 4th century. in both parts of the empire, different directions of Christianity were established for a long time (in the West, orthodox - Nicene, in the East - Arianism).

Located on three continents - at the junction of Europe, Asia and Africa - Byzantium occupied an area of up to 1 ml square. It included the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Cyrenaica, part of Mesopotamia and Armenia, the Mediterranean islands, primarily Crete and Cyprus, strongholds in the Crimea (Chersonese), in the Caucasus (in Georgia), some regions of Arabia, islands of the Eastern Mediterranean. Its borders stretched from the Danube to the Euphrates.

The latest archaeological material shows that the late Roman era was not, as previously thought, an era of continuous decline and decay. Byzantium went through a rather complicated cycle of its development, and modern researchers consider it possible to even talk about the elements of "economic revival" during its historical path. The latter includes the following steps:

4-beginning of the 7th c. - the time of the country's transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages;

second half of 7th-12th c. - the entry of Byzantium into the Middle Ages, the formation of feudalism and relevant institutions in the empire;

13 - first half of the 14th century. - the era of the economic and political decline of Byzantium, culminating in the death of this state.

The development of agrarian relations in the 4th-7th centuries.

Byzantium included densely populated regions of the eastern half of the Roman Empire with a long and high agricultural culture. The specifics of the development of agrarian relations were influenced by the fact that most of the empire was made up of mountainous areas with stony soil, and fertile valleys were small, fragmented, which did not contribute to the formation of large territorial economic units. In addition, historically, already from the time of Greek colonization and further, in the era of Hellenism, almost all lands suitable for cultivation turned out to be occupied by the territories of ancient city-polises. All this led to the dominant role of medium-sized slave-owning estates, and as a result, the power of municipal land ownership and the preservation of a significant layer of small landowners, communities of peasants - owners of various incomes, the top of which were wealthy owners. Under these conditions, the growth of large landed property was hindered. It usually consisted of dozens, rarely hundreds of small and medium-sized estates, territorially scattered, which did not favor the formation of a single estate economy, similar to the western one.

The distinctive features of the agrarian life of early Byzantium in comparison with the Western Roman Empire were the preservation of small, including peasant, land ownership, the viability of the community, a significant proportion of medium-sized urban landownership, with the relative weakness of large-scale landownership. The state land ownership was also very significant in Byzantium. The role of slave labor was significant and can be clearly seen in the legislative sources of the 4th-6th centuries. Slaves were owned by wealthy peasants, soldiers - veterans, urban landowners - plebeians, municipal aristocracy - curials. Researchers associate slavery mainly with municipal land ownership. Indeed, the average municipal landowners constituted the largest stratum of wealthy slave owners, and the average villa was undeniably slave-owning in character. As a rule, the average urban landowner owned one estate in the urban district, often in addition a country house and one or more smaller suburban farms, proasti, which in their totality constituted suburbia, a wide suburban zone of the ancient city, which gradually passed into its rural district, the territory - choir. The estate (villa) was usually a farm of a fairly large size, since it, having a multicultural character, provided the basic needs of the urban manor house. The estate also included lands cultivated by colonial holders, which brought the landowner cash income or a product that was sold.

There is no reason to exaggerate the extent of the decline of municipal landownership, at least until the 5th century. Until that time, the alienation of curial property was not actually limited, which indicates the stability of their position. Only in the 5th c. the curials were prohibited from selling their rural slaves (mancipia rustica). In a number of regions (in the Balkans) up to the 5th c. the growth of medium-sized slave-owning villas continued. As archaeological material shows, their economy was mainly undermined during the invasions of the barbarians at the end of the 4th-5th century.

The growth of large estates (fundi) was due to the absorption of medium-sized villas. Did this lead to a change in the nature of the economy? Archaeological material shows that in a number of regions of the empire large slave-owning villas survived until the end of the 6th-7th centuries. Documents from the end of the 4th c. rural slaves are mentioned on the lands of large owners. Laws of the late 5th c. about the marriages of slaves and columns, they talk about slaves planted on the land, about slaves on peculia, therefore, it is, apparently, not about changing their status, but about curtailing their own master's economy. The slave status laws for the children of slave women show that the bulk of the slaves "reproduced themselves", and that there was no active trend towards the eradication of slavery. We see a similar picture in the "new" rapidly developing church and monastic land ownership.

The process of development of large landownership was accompanied by the curtailment of the master's own economy. This was stimulated by natural conditions, by the very nature of the formation of large landed property, which included a mass of small territorially scattered possessions, the number of which sometimes reached several hundred, with sufficient development of the exchange between the district and the city, commodity-money relations, which made it possible for the owner of the land to receive from them and cash payments. For the Byzantine large estate in the process of its development, to a greater extent than for the western, the curtailment of its own master's economy was characteristic. The manor's estate from the center of the estate's economy more and more turned into a center for the exploitation of the surrounding farms, the collection and better processing of products coming from them. Therefore, a characteristic feature of the evolution of the agrarian life of early Byzantium, with the decline of medium and small slave-owning farms, the main type of settlement becomes a village inhabited by slaves and columns (coma).

However, to begin with, it is worth remembering the reasons why they should not be started at all:

Pressure from family or friends.
Loneliness.
Naive love. When it seems that love is the solution to all problems and the only meaning of life.
Self-doubt or complexes. This inevitably leads to: we love a partner only as long as he makes us feel better. And in such conditions, real intimacy cannot appear.

1. Be realistic

True love is not at all like romantic love, which makes us not notice the shortcomings of a partner. It's a choice. This is the constant support of another person, regardless of the circumstances. This is an understanding that your relationship will not always be cloudless. This is the need to deal with the problems of a partner, his fears and thoughts, even when you don’t feel like it at all.

Such love is more prosaic, it requires much more effort from partners. But still, it gives a person much more. After all, in the end, it brings the present, and not another short-lived euphoria.

2. Respect each other

This is the main thing in a relationship. Not attraction, not shared goals, not religion, not even love. There will be moments when you start to feel like you don't love each other at all anymore. But if you lose respect for your partner, you won't be able to get him back.

Communication, no matter how open and frequent it may be, in any case, someday will come to a standstill. Conflicts and insults cannot be avoided.

The only thing that will save your relationship is unwavering respect. Without it, you will always doubt each other's intentions, judge your partner's choices, and try to limit their independence.

In addition, you also need to respect yourself. Without self-respect, you will not be able to feel that you deserve the respect of a partner. You will constantly try to prove that you deserve it, and as a result, only your relationship.

Never complain about your partner to friends. If you are unhappy with something in his behavior, discuss it with him, and not with friends and relatives.
Be respectful that your partner may have interests, hobbies, and views that are different from yours.
Consider the opinion of your half. Remember, you are one team. If someone alone is dissatisfied, then you need to look for a solution to the problem together.
Do not keep everything to yourself, discuss any problems. You should not have taboo topics of conversation.

Respect is directly related to trust. A is the basis of any relationship (not just romantic ones). Without it, there can be no feeling of intimacy and calmness.

3. Discuss all problems

If you don't like something, be sure to discuss it. No one will fix your relationship for you. The main thing for maintaining trust is absolute honesty and openness of both partners.

Share your doubts and fears, especially those you don't share with anyone else. This will help not only heal some emotional wounds, but also better understand the partner.
Keep your promises. The only way to restore trust is to keep your word.
Learn to distinguish between the suspicious behavior of a partner and your own complexes. Usually during one person thinks that his behavior is completely normal, and the same thing seems categorically wrong to another.

Trust is like a porcelain plate. If it falls and breaks, then with great difficulty it can still be glued back together. If you break it a second time, there will be twice as many fragments, and it will also take more time and effort to put them together. But if you drop the plate over and over again, in the end, it will break into such small pieces that it will be impossible to glue them together.

4. Don't try to control each other

We often hear that relationships require sacrifice. There is some truth in this: sometimes you really have to give up something. But if both partners constantly sacrifice themselves, they are unlikely to be happy. Such a relationship in the end will only harm them both.

Each person should be an independent person with their own views and interests.

Trying to make your partner happy (or allowing you to control your own actions), you will not achieve anything good.

Some are afraid to give their partner freedom and independence. The reason for this may be a lack of confidence or self-doubt. The less we value ourselves, the more we will try to control our partner's behavior.

5. Be prepared for both of you to change.

Over time, you and your partner will change - this is completely natural. Therefore, it is important to always be aware of the ongoing changes and treat them with respect.

If you plan to spend several decades together, you need to be prepared for difficulties and unforeseen situations.

Among the significant changes that many couples face may be a change in religion and political views, moving to another country, (including children).

When you start dating, you only know what this person is now. You have no way of knowing what it will be like in five or 10 years. Therefore, you need to be prepared for the unexpected. Of course, it's not easy. But the ability to quarrel properly can help here.

6. Learn to fight

Psychologist John Gottman identified four signs of behavior that indicate a possible breakup:

Criticism of character (“You are stupid” instead of “You acted stupidly”).
Blame shifting.
Insults.
Avoiding a quarrel and ignoring a partner.

Therefore, it is worth learning to quarrel correctly:

Do not recall previous scandals during one quarrel. This will not solve anything, but will only aggravate the situation.
If the fight escalates, stop. Go outside and walk around a bit. Return to the conversation only when you cool down.
Remember, someone in a quarrel is not as important as the feeling that you were listened to with respect.
Don't try to avoid quarrels. Express your pain and admit what worries you.

7. Learn to forgive

Do not try to change your partner - this is a sign of disrespect. Accept the fact that you have disagreements, love the person in spite of them, and try to forgive.

But how do you learn to forgive?

When the fight is over, it doesn't matter who was right and who was wrong. Leave all conflicts in the past, and do not remember them every month.
You don't have to keep an account. Relationships should not have winners and losers. Everything should be done and given free of charge, that is, without manipulation and expectation of something in return.
When a partner commits, separate his behavior from his intentions. Do not forget that you appreciate and love in a partner. Everyone makes mistakes. And if a person made a mistake, this does not mean at all that he secretly hates you and wants to leave.

8. Be pragmatic

Any relationship is not perfect, because we ourselves are not perfect. Therefore, be pragmatic: determine what each of you is good at, what you like and dislike to do, and then assign responsibilities.

In addition, many couples are advised to determine some rules in advance. For example, how will you share all expenses? How much are you willing to borrow? How much can each partner spend without consulting the other? What do you need to buy together? How will you decide where to go on vacation?

Some even hold "annual reports" during which they discuss how to run the business and decide what to change on the farm. This, of course, sounds trite, but this approach really helps to be aware of the needs and requirements of a partner and strengthens relationships.

9. Mind the little things

Simple signs of attention, compliments and support mean a lot. All these little things accumulate over time and affect how you perceive your relationship. Therefore, many advise to continue, get out somewhere for the weekend and be sure to find time for sex, even when you are tired. Physical intimacy not only keeps a relationship healthy, it even helps mend it when things go wrong.

This becomes especially important with the advent of children. In modern culture, they are almost prayed for. It is believed that parents should sacrifice everything for them.

The best guarantee that children will grow up healthy and happy is a healthy and happy relationship between parents.

So let your relationship always come first.

10. Learn to Catch a Wave

Relationships can be compared to waves on the sea. Such waves are different, ups and downs in relationships. Some last only a few hours, others several months or even years.

The main thing is not to forget that these waves by themselves practically do not reflect the quality of the relationship. They are influenced by many external factors: loss or change of job, death of relatives, moving, financial difficulties. You just need to catch the wave with your partner, wherever it takes you.

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