Problems of space exploration. The main problems of human space exploration Problems of space exploration danger to society

Introduction:

In the second half XX c. Humanity stepped onto the threshold of the Universe - it entered outer space. Our Motherland opened the road to space. The first artificial Earth satellite, which opened the space age, was launched by the former Soviet Union, the world's first cosmonaut was a citizen of the former USSR.

Cosmonautics is a huge catalyst for modern science and technology, which in an unprecedentedly short time has become one of the main levers of the modern world process. It stimulates the development of electronics, mechanical engineering,

materials science, computer technology, energy and many other areas of the national economy.

Scientifically, humanity strives to find in space the answer to such fundamental questions as the structure and evolution of the Universe, the formation of the Solar system, the origin and development paths of life. From hypotheses about the nature of planets and the structure of space, people moved on to a comprehensive and direct study of celestial bodies and interplanetary space with the help of rocket and space technology.

In space exploration, humanity will have to study various areas of outer space: the Moon, other planets and interplanetary space.

The current level of space technology and the forecast for its development show that the main goal of scientific research using space means, apparently, in the near future will be our Solar system. The main tasks will be the study of solar-terrestrial connections and the Earth-Moon space, as well as Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and other planets, astronomical research, medical and biological research in order to assess the influence of flight duration on the human body and its performance.

In principle, the development of space technology should be ahead of the “Demand” associated with solving current national economic problems. The main tasks here are launch vehicles, propulsion systems, spacecraft, as well as supporting facilities (command-measuring and launch complexes, equipment, etc.), ensuring progress in related branches of technology directly or indirectly related to the development of astronautics.

Fantasy is a quality of the greatest value V. I. Lenin

Before flying into outer space, it was necessary to understand and use in practice the principle of jet propulsion, learn how to make rockets, create a theory of interplanetary communications, etc.

Rocketry is not a new concept. Man went to the creation of powerful modern launch vehicles through millennia of dreams, fantasies, mistakes, searches in various fields of science and technology, accumulation of experience and knowledge.

The principle of operation of a rocket is its movement under the influence of recoil force, the reaction of a stream of particles thrown away from the rocket. In a rocket. i.e., in a device equipped with a rocket engine, the escaping gases are formed due to the reaction of the oxidizer and fuel stored in the rocket itself. This circumstance makes the operation of a rocket engine independent of the presence or absence of a gaseous environment. Thus, the rocket is an amazing structure, capable of moving in airless space, i.e., non-supporting space.

A special place among Russian projects for the application of the jet principle of flight is occupied by the project of N. I. Kibalchich, a famous Russian revolutionary who, despite his short life (1853−1881), left a deep mark in the history of science and technology. Having extensive and deep knowledge of mathematics, physics and especially chemistry, Kibalchich made homemade shells and mines for the People's Will. The “Aeronautical Instrument Project” was the result of Kibalchich’s long-term research work on explosives. He, essentially, for the first time proposed not a rocket engine adapted to any existing aircraft, as other inventors did, but a completely new (rocket-dynamic) device, the prototype of modern manned spacecraft, in which the thrust of the rocket engines serves to directly create a lifting force that supports the device in flight . Kibalchich's aircraft was supposed to function on the principle of a rocket!

But because Kibalchich was sent to prison for the assassination attempt on Tsar Alexander II,

The design of his aircraft was discovered only in 1917 in the archives of the police department.

So, by the end of the last century, the idea of ​​​​using jet instruments for flights gained large scale in Russia. And the first who decided to continue research was our great compatriot Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky (1857−1935). He began the reactive principle of movement It's too early to be interested. Already in 1883 he gave a description of a ship with a jet engine. Already in 1903, Tsiolkovsky, for the first time in the world, made it possible to construct a liquid rocket design. Tsiolkovsky's ideas received universal recognition back in the 1920s. And the brilliant successor of his work, S.P. Korolev, a month before the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, said that the ideas and works of Konstantin Eduardovich would attract more and more attention as rocket technology developed, in which he turned out to be absolutely right!

Beginning of the space age

And so, 40 years after the aircraft design created by Kibalchich was found, on October 4, 1957, former USSR

launched the world's first artificial satellite. The first Soviet satellite made it possible for the first time to measure the density of the upper atmosphere, obtain data on the propagation of radio signals in the vionosphere, work out issues of insertion into orbit, thermal conditions, etc. The satellite was an aluminum sphere with a diameter of 58 cm and a mass of 83.6 kg with four whip antennas 2.4-2 long .9 m. The satellite’s sealed housing housed equipment and power supplies. The initial orbital parameters were: perigee altitude 228 km, apogee altitude 947 km, inclination 65.1 deg. On November 3, the Soviet Union announced the launch of a second Soviet satellite into orbit. In a separate hermetic cabin there was a dog Laika and a telemetry system to record its weightless behavior. The satellite was also equipped with scientific instruments for studying solar radiation and cosmic rays.

On December 6, 1957, the United States attempted to launch the Avangard 1 satellite using a launch vehicle developed by the Naval Research Laboratory. After ignition, the rocket rose up on the launch table, but a second later the engines turned off and the rocket fell onto the table, exploding on impact.

On January 31, 1958, the Explorer 1 satellite was launched into orbit, the American response to the launch of Soviet satellites. By size and

For the most part, he was not a candidate for record holder. Less than 1 m long and only ~15.2 cm in diameter, it had a mass of only 4.8 kg.

However, its payload was attached to the fourth and final

it is the stage of the Juno-1 launch vehicle. The satellite, together with the rocket in orbit, had a length of 205 cm and a mass of 14 kg. It was equipped with external and internal temperature sensors, erosion and impact sensors to determine micrometeorite flows, and a Geiger-Muller counter to record penetrating cosmic rays.

An important scientific result of the satellite's flight was the discovery of the radiation belts surrounding the Earth. The Geiger-Muller counter stopped counting when the device was at apogee at an altitude of 2530 km, the perigee altitude was 360 km.

On February 5, 1958, a second attempt was made in the United States to launch the Avangard-1 satellite, but it also ended in an accident, like the first attempt. Finally, on March 17, the satellite was launched into orbit. Between December 1957 and September 1959, eleven attempts were made to place Avangard-1 into orbit, only three of which were successful. that. Between December 1957 and September 1959, eleven attempts were made to place the Avangard into orbit.

Both satellites introduced a lot of new things into space science and technology (solar batteries, new data on the density of the upper atmosphere, precise mapping of islands in the Pacific Ocean, etc.) On August 17, 1958, the United States made the first attempt to send a satellite from Cape Canaveral to the vicinity of the Moon probe with scientific equipment. It turned out to be unsuccessful. The rocket rose and flew only 16 km. The first stage of the rocket exploded 77 minutes into the flight. On October 11, 1958, a second attempt was made to launch the Pioneer 1 lunar probe, which was also unsuccessful. The next few launches also turned out to be unsuccessful, only on March 3, 1959, "Pioneer-4", weighing 6.1 kg, partially completed the task: it flew past the Moon at a distance of 60,000 km (instead of the planned 24,000 km).

Just as with the launch of the Earth satellite, priority in launching the first probe belongs to the USSR; on January 2, 1959, the first man-made object was launched, which was placed on a trajectory passing fairly close to the Moon into orbit

satellite of the Sun. Thus, Luna-1 reached the second escape velocity for the first time. Luna 1 had a mass of 361.3 kg and flew past the Moon at a distance of 5500 km. At a distance of 113,000 km from Earth, a cloud of sodium vapor was released from a rocket stage docked to Luna 1, forming an artificial comet. Solar radiation caused a bright glow of sodium vapor and optical systems on Earth photographed the cloud in the background

constellation Aquarius.

Luna 2, launched on September 12, 1959, made the world's first flight to another celestial body. The 390.2-kilogram sphere contained instruments that showed that the Moon does not have a magnetic field or radiation belt.

The automatic interplanetary station (AMS) “Luna-3” was launched on October 4, 1959. The weight of the station was 435 kg. The main purpose of the launch was to fly around the Moon and photograph its reverse side, invisible from the Earth. Photographing was carried out 7

October for 40 minutes from an altitude of 6200 km above the Moon.

Man in space

On April 12, 1961, at 9:07 a.m. Moscow time, several tens of kilometers north of the village of Tyuratam in Kazakhstan, at the Soviet Baikonur Cosmodrome, the launch of the R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile took place, in the bow compartment of which the manned Vostok spacecraft was located with Air Force Major Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin on board. . The launch was successful. The spacecraft was launched into orbit with an inclination of 65 degrees, a perigee altitude of 181 km and an apogee altitude of 327 km and completed one orbit around the Earth in 89 minutes. At the 108th minute after launch, it returned to Earth, landing near the village of Smelovka, Saratov region. Thus, 4 years after the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, the Soviet Union for the first time in the world carried out a human flight into outer space.

The spacecraft consisted of two compartments. The descent vehicle, which was also the cosmonaut's cabin, was a sphere with a diameter of 2.3 m, coated with an ablative material for thermal protection during reentry. The spacecraft was controlled automatically and by the astronaut. During the flight it was continuously maintained with the Earth. The atmosphere of the ship is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen under a pressure of 1 atm. (760 mmHg). Vostok-1 had a mass of 4730 kg, and with the last stage of the launch vehicle 6170 kg. The Vostok spacecraft was launched into space 5 times, after which it was declared safe for human flight.

3rd rank Alan Shepard became the first American astronaut.

Although it did not reach Earth orbit, it rose above the Earth

to an altitude of about 186 km. Shepard launched from Cape Canaveral in

Spacecraft "Mercury-3" using a modified ballistic

Redstone rockets, spent 15 minutes 22 in flight with an additional landing in the Atlantic Ocean. He proved that a person in conditions of weightlessness can exercise manual control of a spacecraft. The Mercury spacecraft was significantly different from the Vostok spacecraft.

It consisted of only one module - a manned capsule in

shaped like a truncated cone 2.9 m long and base diameter

1.89 m . Its sealed nickel alloy shell was lined with titanium to protect it from heat upon entry into the atmosphere.

The atmosphere inside Mercury consisted of pure oxygen

under a pressure of 0.36 at.

Canaveral launched the Mercury 6 spacecraft, manned by

Navy Lieutenant Colonel John Glenn. Glenn spent only 4 hours 55 minutes in orbit, completing 3 orbits before a successful landing. The purpose of Glenn's flight was to determine the possibility of human work in the Mercury spacecraft. The last time Mercury was launched into space was on May 15, 1963.

On March 18, 1965, the Voskhod spacecraft was launched into orbit with two cosmonauts on board - the ship’s commander, Colonel Pavel

Ivarovich Belyaev and co-pilot Lieutenant Colonel Alexey Arkhipovich Leonov. Immediately after entering orbit, the crew cleared themselves of nitrogen by inhaling pure oxygen. Then there was

The airlock compartment was deployed: Leonov entered the airlock compartment, closed the spacecraft hatch cover and for the first time in the world made an exit into outer space. The cosmonaut with an autonomous life support system was outside the spacecraft cabin for 20 minutes, at times moving away from the spacecraft at a distance of up to 5 m. During the exit, he was connected to the spacecraft only by telephone and telemetry cables. Thus, the possibility of an astronaut staying and working outside the spacecraft was practically confirmed.

On June 3, the spacecraft Gemeny 4 was launched with captains James McDivitt and Edward White. During this flight, which lasted 97 hours and 56 minutes, White exited the spacecraft and spent 21 minutes outside the cockpit testing the possibility of maneuvering in space using a hand-held compressed gas jet gun.

Unfortunately, space exploration was not without casualties. On January 27, 1967, the crew preparing to make the first

manned flight under the Apollo program died on time

fire inside the spacecraft burned out in 15 s in an atmosphere of pure oxygen. Virgil Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chaffee became the first American astronauts to die on space mission. On April 23, the new Soyuz-1 spacecraft was launched from Baikonur, piloted by Colonel Vladimir Komarov. The launch was successful.

On the 18th orbit, 26 hours 45 minutes after launch, Komarov began orientation to enter the atmosphere. All operations went well, but after re-entry and braking the parachute system failed. The astronaut died instantly when the Soyuz hit the Earth at a speed of 644 km/h. Subsequently, space claimed more than one human life, but these victims were the first.

It should be noted that in terms of natural science and production, the world faces a number of global problems, the solution of which requires the united efforts of all peoples. These are problems of raw materials resources, energy, environmental control and conservation of the biosphere, and others. Space research, one of the most important areas of the scientific and technological revolution, will play a huge role in their fundamental solution.

Cosmonautics clearly demonstrates to the whole world the fruitfulness of peaceful creative work, the benefits of combining the efforts of different countries in solving scientific and national economic problems.

What problems do astronautics and the astronauts themselves face?

Let's start with life support. What is life support?Life support in space flight is the creation and maintenance during the entire flight in the living and working compartments of spacecraft. such conditions that would provide the crew with sufficient performance to complete the assigned task and a minimum likelihood of pathological changes occurring in the human body. How to do it? It is necessary to significantly reduce the degree of exposure of humans to unfavorable external factors of space flight - vacuum, meteoric bodies, penetrating radiation, weightlessness, overloads; supply the crew with substances and energy without which normal human life is not possible - food, water, oxygen and food; remove waste products of the body and substances harmful to health released during the operation of spacecraft systems and equipment; provide human needs for movement, rest, external information and normal working conditions; organize medical monitoring of the crew’s health status and maintain it at the required level. Food and water are delivered into space in appropriate packaging, oxygen - in a chemically bound form. If you do not restore waste products, then for a crew of three people for one year you will need 11 tons of the above products, which, you see, is a considerable weight, volume, and how will all this be stored throughout the year?!

In the near future, regeneration systems will make it possible to almost completely reproduce oxygen and water on board the station. For a long time, they began to use post-wash and shower water purified in a regeneration system. The exhaled moisture is condensed in the refrigeration-drying unit and then regenerated. Breathable oxygen is extracted from purified water by electrolysis, and hydrogen gas reacts with carbon dioxide coming from the concentrator to form water, which feeds the electrolyzer. The use of such a system makes it possible to reduce the mass of stored substances in the considered example from 11 to 2 tons. Recently, it has been practiced to grow various types of plants directly on board the ship, which makes it possible to reduce the supply of food that needs to be taken into space, Tsiolkovsky mentioned this in his works.

Space science

Space exploration helps in many ways in the development of sciences:

On December 18, 1980, the phenomenon of the flow of particles from the Earth's radiation belts under negative magnetic anomalies was established.

Experiments carried out on the first satellites showed that the near-Earth space outside the atmosphere is not “empty” at all. It is filled with plasma, permeated with streams of energy particles. In 1958, the Earth's radiation belts were discovered in near space - giant magnetic traps filled with charged particles - protons and high-energy electrons.

The highest intensity of radiation in the belts is observed at altitudes of several thousand km. Theoretical estimates showed that below 500 km. There should be no increased radiation. Therefore, the discovery of the first K.K. during flights was completely unexpected. areas of intense radiation at altitudes up to 200−300 km. It turned out that this is due to anomalous zones of the Earth's magnetic field.

The study of the Earth's natural resources using space methods has spread, which has greatly contributed to the development of the national economy.

The first problem that faced space researchers in 1980 was a complex of scientific research, including most of the most important areas of space natural science. Their goal was to develop methods for thematic decoding of multispectral video information and their use in solving problems in the geosciences and economic sectors. Such tasks include: studying the global and local structures of the earth’s crust to understand the history of its development.

The second problem is one of the fundamental physical and technical problems of remote sensing and is aimed at creating catalogs of radiation characteristics of earthly objects and models of their transformation, which will make it possible to analyze the state of natural formations at the time of shooting and predict their dynamics.

A distinctive feature of the third problem is the focus on the radiation characteristics of large regions up to the planet as a whole, using data on the parameters and anomalies of the Earth’s gravitational and geomagnetic fields.

Exploring the Earth from space

Man for the first time appreciated the role of satellites for monitoring the condition

agricultural land, forests and other natural resources

Earth only a few years after the onset of space

era. The beginning was made in 1960, when, with the help of the Tiros meteorological satellites, map-like outlines of the globe lying under the clouds were obtained. These first black-and-white TV images provided very little insight into human activity, yet it was a first step. Soon, new technical means were developed that made it possible to improve the quality of observations. Information was extracted from multispectral images in the visible and infrared (IR) regions of the spectrum. The first satellites designed to make maximum use of these capabilities were Landsat-type devices. For example, the Landsat-D satellite ", the fourth in the series, observed the Earth from an altitude of more than 640 km using advanced sensitive instruments, allowing consumers to receive significantly more detailed and timely information. One of the first areas of application of images of the earth's surface was cartography. Pre-satellite era maps of many areas, even in developed

areas of the world were compiled inaccurately. Images taken from

using the Landsat satellite, allowed us to correct and update some existing US maps. In the USSR, images obtained from the Salyut station turned out to be indispensable for calibrating the BAM railway route.

In the mid-70s, NASA and the US Department of Agriculture decided to demonstrate the capabilities of the satellite system in forecasting the most important agricultural crop, wheat. Satellite observations, which turned out to be extremely accurate, were later extended to other crops. Around the same time in the USSR, observations of agricultural crops were carried out by satellites of the Cosmos, Meteor, Monsoon series and Salyut orbital stations.

The use of satellite information has revealed its undeniable advantages in estimating the volume of timber in large areas of any country. It has become possible to manage the deforestation process and, if necessary, make recommendations for changes

contours of the felling area from the point of view of the best preservation of the forest. Satellite imagery has also made it possible to quickly estimate the boundaries of wildfires, especially the crown fires found in western North America, and

the same regions of Primorye and southern regions of Eastern Siberia in Russia.

Of great importance for humanity as a whole is the ability to observe almost continuously the vastness of the World Ocean,

this “forge” of weather. It is above the thickness of ocean water that monstrous hurricanes and typhoons arise, causing numerous casualties and destruction for coastal residents. Early warning of the population is often critical to saving the lives of tens of thousands of people. Determining the reserves of fish and other seafood is also of great practical importance. Ocean currents often bend, change course and size. For example, El Nino, a warm current in a southerly direction off the coast of Ecuador in some years can spread along the coast of Peru up to 12 degrees. S. When this happens, plankton and fish die in huge quantities, causing irreparable damage to the fisheries of many countries, including Russia. Large concentrations of single-celled marine organisms increase fish mortality, possibly due to the toxins they contain. Observation from satellites helps to identify the “vagaries” of such currents and provide useful information to those who need it.

According to some estimates by Russian and American scientists, fuel savings, combined with the “additional catch” due to the use of information from satellites obtained in the infrared range, gives an annual profit of $ 2.44 million. The use of satellites for survey purposes has facilitated the task of plotting the course of sea vessels. Satellites also detect icebergs and glaciers that are dangerous for ships. Accurate knowledge of snow reserves in the mountains and the volume of glaciers is an important task of scientific research, because as arid territories are developed, the need for water increases sharply.

The cosmonauts' help was invaluable in creating the largest cartographic work - the Atlas of Snow and Ice Resources of the World.

Also, with the help of satellites, oil pollution, air pollution, and minerals are found.

Space Science

Within a short period of time since the beginning of the space age, man has not only sent automated space stations to other planets and set foot on the surface of the Moon, but has also created a revolution in space science unmatched in the entire history of mankind. Along with great technical achievements caused by the development of astronautics, new knowledge was gained about planet Earth and its neighboring worlds. One of the first important discoveries made not by traditional visual, but by another method of observation, was the establishment of the fact of a sharp increase with height, starting from a certain threshold height, in the intensity of previously considered isotropic cosmic rays. This discovery belongs to the Austrian W.F. Hess, who launched it in 1946. gas balloon with equipment for high altitudes.

In 1952 and 1953 Dr. James Van Allen conducted research on low-

to energetic cosmic rays when launching small rockets to a height of 19−24 km and high-altitude balloons in the area of ​​the Earth’s north magnetic pole. After analyzing the results of the experiments, Van Allen proposed placing cosmic ray detectors that were fairly simple in design on board the first American artificial Earth satellites.

Using the Explorer 1 satellite launched into orbit by the United States

On January 31, 1958, a sharp decrease in the intensity of cosmic radiation was discovered at altitudes above 950 km. At the end of 1958, the Pioneer-3 AMS, which covered a distance of over 100,000 km in one day of flight, recorded, using the sensors on board, the second, located above the first, Earth’s radiation belt, which also encircles the entire globe.

In August and September 1958, three atomic explosions were carried out at an altitude of more than 320 km, each with a power of 1.5 kt. The purpose of the tests, codenamed "Argus", was to study the possibility

loss of radio and radar communications during such tests. The study of the Sun is the most important scientific task, the solution of which is devoted to many launches of the first satellites and spacecraft.

The American "Pioneer-4" - "Pioneer-9" (1959−1968) from near-solar orbits transmitted by radio to Earth the most important information about the structure of the Sun. At the same time, more than twenty satellites of the Intercosmos series were launched to study the Sun and

circumsolar space.

Black holes

Black holes were discovered in the 1960s. It turned out that if our eyes could only see x-rays, the starry sky above us would look completely different. True, X-rays emitted by the Sun were discovered even before the birth of astronautics, but they were not aware of other sources in the starry sky. We came across them by accident.

In 1962, the Americans, deciding to check whether X-ray radiation was emanating from the surface of the Moon, launched a rocket equipped with special equipment. It was then that, when processing the observation results, we became convinced that the instruments noted a powerful source of X-ray radiation. It was located in the constellation Scorpio. And already in the 70s, the first two satellites, designed to search for research into sources of X-rays in the universe, went into orbit - the American Uhuru and the Soviet Cosmos-428.

By this time, things had already begun to become clear. Objects emitting X-rays have been linked to barely visible stars with unusual properties. These were compact clots of plasma of insignificant, of course by cosmic standards, sizes and masses, heated to several tens of millions of degrees. Despite their very modest appearance, these objects possessed a colossal power of X-ray radiation, several thousand times greater than the full compatibility of the Sun.

These tiny, about 10 km in diameter, remains of completely burned out stars, compressed to a monstrous density, had to somehow make themselves known. That is why neutron stars were so readily “recognized” in X-ray sources. And it seemed like everything was coming together. But the calculations refuted expectations: newly formed neutron stars should have immediately cooled down and stopped emitting, but these ones emitted x-rays.

With the help of launched satellites, researchers discovered strictly periodic changes in the radiation fluxes of some of them. The period of these variations was also determined - usually it did not exceed several days. Only two stars rotating around themselves could behave this way, one of which periodically eclipsed the other. This has been proven by observation through telescopes.

Where do X-ray sources get their colossal radiation energy? The main condition for the transformation of a normal star into a neutron star is considered to be the complete attenuation of the nuclear reaction in it. Therefore nuclear energy is excluded. Then maybe it's kinetic energy a rapidly rotating massive body? Indeed, it is great for neutron stars. But it only lasts for a short time.

Most neutron stars do not exist alone, but in pairs with a huge star. In their interaction, theorists believe, the source of the mighty power of cosmic X-rays is hidden. It forms a disk of gas around the neutron star. At the magnetic poles of the neutron ball, the substance of the disk falls onto its surface, and the energy acquired by the gas is converted into X-ray radiation.

Cosmos-428 also presented its own surprise. His equipment registered a new, completely unknown phenomenon - X-ray flashes. In one day, the satellite detected 20 bursts, each of which lasted no more than 1 second, and the radiation power increased tens of times. Scientists called the sources of X-ray flares BARSTERS. They are also associated with binary systems. The most powerful flares in terms of energy fired are only several times inferior to the total radiation of hundreds of billions of stars located in our galaxy.

Theorists have proven that “black holes” that are part of binary star systems can signal themselves with X-rays. And the reason for its occurrence is also gas accretion. True, the mechanism in this case is somewhat different. The internal parts of the gas disk settling into the “hole” should heat up and therefore become sources of X-rays.

By transitioning to a neutron star, only those luminaries whose mass does not exceed 2-3 solar ones end their “life”. Larger stars suffer the fate of a “black hole.”

X-ray astronomy told us about the last, perhaps the most turbulent, stage in the development of stars. Thanks to her, we learned about powerful cosmic explosions, gas with temperatures of tens and hundreds of millions of degrees, and the possibility of a completely unusual superdense state of substances in “black holes.”

What else does space give us? For a long time now, television (TV) programs have not mentioned the fact that the transmission is carried out via satellite. This is further evidence of the enormous success in the industrialization of space, which has become an integral part of our lives. Communication satellites literally entangle the world with invisible threads. The idea of ​​​​creating communication satellites was born shortly after the Second World War, when A. Clark wrote in an issue of the magazine Wireless World. ) in October 1945 presented his concept of a communications relay station located at an altitude of 35,880 km above the Earth.

Clark's merit was that he determined the orbit on

in which the satellite is stationary relative to the Earth. This orbit is called geostationary or Clarke orbit. When driving

in a circular orbit with an altitude of 35,880 km, one orbit is completed

in 24 hours, i.e. during the period of the Earth’s daily rotation. Satellite,

moving in such an orbit will constantly be above

a certain point on the Earth's surface.

The first communications satellite "Telstar-1" was launched into low Earth orbit with parameters of 950 × 5630 km; this happened

elk on July 10, 1962. Almost a year later, the Telstar-2 satellite followed. The first telecast showed the American flag in New England with the Andover station in the background. This image was transmitted to the UK, France and to the American station in the state. New Jersey 15 hours after satellite launch. Two weeks later, millions of Europeans and Americans watched negotiations between people on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean. They not only talked, but also saw each other, communicating via satellite. Historians can consider this day the birth date of space TV. The world's largest state-owned satellite communications system was created in Russia. It began in April 1965 with the launch of the Molniya series satellites, launched into highly elongated elliptical orbits with an apogee above the Northern Hemisphere. Each series includes four pairs of satellites orbiting at an angular distance from each other of 90 degrees.

The first long-range system was built on the basis of the Molniya satellites.

space communications "Orbit". In December 1975, the family of communications satellites was replenished with the Raduga satellite, operating in geostationary orbit. Then the Ekran satellite appeared with a more powerful transmitter and simpler ground stations. After the first development of satellites, a new period began in the development of satellite communications technology, when satellites began to be launched into a geostationary orbit in which they move synchronously with the rotation of the Earth. This made it possible to establish round-the-clock communication between ground stations using new generation satellites: the American Sinkom, Airlie Bird and Intelsat, and the Russian Raduga and Horizon satellites.

A great future is associated with the deployment of geostationary

orbit of antenna complexes.

On June 17, 1991, the ERS-1 geodetic satellite was launched into orbit. The satellites' primary mission would be to observe the oceans and ice-covered land masses to provide climatologists, oceanographers, and environmental organizations with data on these little-explored regions. The satellite was equipped with the most modern microwave equipment, thanks to which it is ready for any weather: the “eyes” of its radar instruments penetrate through cloud mists and provide a clear image of the Earth’s surface, through water, through land, and through ice. ERS -1 was aimed at developing ice maps, which would subsequently help avoid many disasters associated with collisions of ships with icebergs, etc.

With all that, the development of shipping routes is, speaking of

in different words, just the tip of the iceberg, if you only remember the decoding of ERS data on the oceans and ice-covered spaces of the Earth. We are aware of alarming forecasts of global warming of the Earth, which will lead to the melting of the polar caps and rising sea levels. All coastal areas will be flooded, millions of people will suffer.

But we do not know how correct these predictions are. Long-term observations of the polar regions by ERS-1 and its subsequent ERS-2 satellite in late autumn 1994 provide data from which conclusions can be drawn about these trends. They are creating an “early detection” system for melting ice.

Thanks to the images that the ERS-1 satellite transmitted to Earth, we know that the ocean floor with its mountains and idols is, as it were, “imprinted” on the surface of the waters. This way, scientists can get an idea of ​​whether the distance from the satellite to the sea surface (measured to within ten centimeters by satellite radar altimeters) is an indication of rising sea levels, or whether it is the “imprint” of a mountain on the bottom.

Although the ERS-1 satellite was originally designed for ocean and ice observations, it quickly proved its versatility in relation to land. In agriculture and forestry, fisheries, geology and cartography, specialists work with data provided by satellite. Since ERS-1 is still operational after three years of its mission, scientists have a chance to operate it together with ERS-2 for shared missions, as a tandem. And they are going to receive new information about the topography of the earth's surface and provide assistance, for example, in warning about possible earthquakes.

The ERS-2 satellite is also equipped with a measuring instrument

Global OzoneMonitoring Experiment Home which takes into account volume

and the distribution of ozone and other gases in the Earth's atmosphere. Using this device you can observe the dangerous ozone hole and the changes that occur. At the same time, according to ERS-2 data, it is possible to divert UV-B radiation close to the ground.

Against the backdrop of the many global environmental problems for which both ERS-1 and ERS-2 must provide fundamental information, planning shipping routes seems to be a relatively minor output of this work.new generation of satellites. But this is one of the technical areas in which

The opportunities for commercial use of satellite data are being exploited particularly intensively. This helps in funding other important tasks. And this has an effect on environmental protection that is difficult to overestimate: faster shipping routes require less energy consumption. Or think about the oil tankers that ran aground in storms or crashed and sank, losing their environmentally hazardous cargo. Reliable route planning helps avoid such disasters.

In conclusion, it is fair to say that the twentieth century is rightly called the “age of electricity”, “atomic age”, “age of chemistry”, “age of biology”. But its most recent and, apparently, also fair name is “space age.” Humanity has embarked on a path leading to mysterious cosmic distances, conquering which it will expand the scope of its activities. The space future of humanity is the guarantee of its continuous development on the path of progress and prosperity, which was dreamed of and created by those who worked and are working today in the field of astronautics and other sectors of the national economy.

Used Books:

1."Space technology" edited by K. Gatland. 1986 Moscow.

2.“SPACE, far and near” A.D. Koval V.P. Senkevich. 1977

3.“Space exploration in the USSR” V.L. Barsukov 1982.

4.“Space for earthlings” Beregovoi

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Before the start of the first space flights, all near-Earth space, and even more so the “distant” space, the universe, was considered something unknown. And only later did they begin to recognize that between the Universe and the Earth - this smallest particle of it - there is an inextricable relationship and unity. Earthlings began to consider themselves participants in all processes occurring in outer space.

The close interaction of the Earth's biosphere with the cosmic environment gives grounds to assert that the processes occurring in the Universe have an impact on our planet. When developing space activities, it is necessary to make an environmental orientation to astronautics, since the absence of the latter can lead to irreversible consequences. It should be noted that already at the birth of the foundations of theoretical cosmonautics, environmental aspects played an important role, and, above all, in the works of K.E. Tsiolkovsky. In his opinion, the very entry of man into space represents the development of a completely new ecological “niche”, different from the earthly one.

Near space (or near-Earth space) is the gaseous envelope of the Earth, which is located above the surface atmosphere, and whose behavior is determined by the direct influence of solar ultraviolet radiation, while the state of the atmosphere is influenced mainly by the Earth's surface. Until recently, scientists believed that near space exploration had almost no impact on the weather, climate and other living conditions on Earth.

Therefore, it is not surprising that space exploration was carried out without regard to the environment. The appearance of ozone holes has given scientists pause. But, as research shows, the problem of preserving the ozone layer is only a small part of a much more general problem of protecting and rationally using near-Earth space, and above all that part of it that forms the upper atmosphere and for which ozone is only one of its components.

In terms of the relative force of impact on the upper atmosphere, the launch of a space rocket is similar to the explosion of an atomic bomb in the surface atmosphere. Space is a new environment for humans, not yet inhabited. But here, too, the eternal problem of contamination of the environment, this time in space, arose. There is also the problem of contamination of near-Earth space with spacecraft debris. Moreover, a distinction is made between observable and unobservable space debris, the amount of which is unknown. Space debris appears during the operation of orbital spacecraft and their subsequent deliberate destruction.

It also includes spent spacecraft, upper stages, detachable structural elements such as pyrobolt adapters, covers, fairings, last stages of launch vehicles, and the like. According to modern data, there are 3000 tons of space debris in near space, which is about 1% of the mass of the entire upper atmosphere above 200 kilometers. Growing space debris poses a serious threat to space stations and human missions. Already today, the creators of space technology are forced to take into account the troubles that they themselves created.

Space debris is dangerous not only for astronauts and space technology, but also for earthlings. Experts have calculated that out of 150 spacecraft debris that reaches the surface of the planet, one is likely to seriously injure or even kill a person. Thus, if humanity does not take effective measures to combat space debris in the very near future, then the space era in the history of mankind may soon end ingloriously. Outer space is not under the jurisdiction of any state.

This is in its purest form an international object of protection. Thus, one of the important problems arising in the process of industrial space exploration is the determination of specific factors of the permissible limits of anthropogenic impact on the environment and near-Earth space. It is impossible not to admit that today there is a negative impact of space technology on the environment (destruction of the ozone layer, contamination of the atmosphere with oxides of metals, carbon, nitrogen, and near space with parts of spent spacecraft). Therefore, it is very important to study the consequences of its influence from an environmental point of view.

Problems that concern not any particular continent or state, but the entire planet, are called global. As civilization develops, it accumulates more and more of them. Today there are eight main problems. Let's consider the global problems of humanity and ways to solve them.

Ecological problem

Today it is considered the main one. For a long time, people have used the resources given to them by nature irrationally, polluted the environment around them, and poisoned the Earth with a variety of waste - from solid to radioactive. The result was not long in coming - according to the majority of competent researchers, environmental problems in the next hundred years will lead to irreversible consequences for the planet, and therefore for humanity.

There are already countries where this issue has reached a very high level, giving rise to the concept of an ecological crisis area. But a threat looms over the whole world: the ozone layer, which protects the planet from radiation, is being destroyed, the earth’s climate is changing - and humans are unable to control these changes.

Even the most developed country cannot solve the problem alone, so states unite to jointly solve important environmental problems. The main solution is considered to be reasonable use of natural resources and reorganization of everyday life and industrial production so that the ecosystem develops naturally.

Rice. 1. The threatening scale of the environmental problem.

Demographic problem

In the 20th century, when the world's population exceeded six billion, everyone had heard of it. However, in the 21st century the vector has shifted. In short, the essence of the problem now is this: there are fewer and fewer people. A competent policy of family planning and improving the living conditions of each individual will help solve this issue.

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Food problem

This problem is closely related to the demographic one and consists in the fact that more than half of humanity is experiencing acute food shortages. To solve it, we need to more rationally use available resources for food production. Experts see two development paths: intensive, when the biological productivity of existing fields and other lands increases, and extensive, when their number increases.

All global problems of humanity must be solved together, and this is no exception. The food problem arose due to the fact that most people live in unsuitable areas. Combining the efforts of scientists from different countries will significantly speed up the solution process.

Energy and raw materials problem

The uncontrolled use of raw materials has led to the depletion of mineral reserves that have been accumulating for hundreds of millions of years. Very soon, fuel and other resources may disappear altogether, so scientific and technological progress is being introduced at all stages of production.

The problem of peace and disarmament

Some scientists believe that in the very near future it may happen that there will be no need to look for possible ways to solve humanity’s global problems: people are producing such an amount of offensive weapons (including nuclear weapons) that at some point they can destroy themselves. To prevent this from happening, world treaties on arms reduction and demilitarization of economies are being developed.

Human health problem

Humanity continues to suffer from deadly diseases. The progress of science is great, but diseases that cannot be cured still exist. The only solution is to continue scientific research in search of cures.

The problem of using the World Ocean

The depletion of land resources has led to increased interest in the World Ocean - all countries that have access to it use it not only as a biological resource. Both the mining and chemical sectors are actively developing. Which gives rise to two problems at once: pollution and uneven development. But how are these issues resolved? Currently, they are being studied by scientists from all over the world, who are developing principles of rational ocean environmental management.

Rice. 2. Industrial station in the ocean.

The problem of space exploration

To explore outer space, it is important to join forces on a global scale. The latest research is the result of consolidation of work from many countries. This is precisely the basis for solving the problem.

Scientists have already developed a model of the first station for settlers on the Moon, and Elon Musk says that the day is not far off when people will go to explore Mars.

Rice. 3. Layout of the lunar base.

What have we learned?

Humanity has many global problems that can ultimately lead to its death. These problems can only be solved if efforts are consolidated - otherwise the efforts of one or several countries will be reduced to zero. Thus, civilizational development and the solution of problems of a universal scale are possible only if the survival of man as a species becomes higher than economic and state interests.

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In the course of the development of civilization, humanity has repeatedly faced complex problems, sometimes of a planetary nature. But still, this was a distant prehistory, a kind of “incubation period” of modern global problems.

They fully manifested themselves in the second half and especially in the last quarter of the 20th century. Such problems were brought to life by a complex of reasons that clearly manifested themselves during this period.

In fact, never before has humanity itself increased quantitatively by 2.5 times during the lifetime of only one generation, thereby increasing the strength of the “demographic press”. Never before has humanity entered into, reached the post-industrial stage of development, or opened the road to space. Never before have such quantities of natural resources and the “waste” they return to the environment been required to support its life. All this since the 60s and 70s. XX century attracted the attention of scientists, politicians, and the general public to global problems.

Global problems are problems that: firstly, concern all of humanity, affecting the interests and destinies of all countries, peoples, social strata; secondly, they lead to significant economic and social losses, and if they worsen, they can threaten the very existence of human civilization;
thirdly, they can only be resolved through cooperation on a planetary basis.

Priority problems of humanity are:

• the problem of peace and disarmament;
• environmental;
• demographic;
• energy;
• raw materials;
• food;
• use of the resources of the World Ocean;
• peaceful space exploration;
• overcoming the backwardness of developing countries.

The essence of global problems and possible ways to solve them

The problem of peace and disarmament- the problem of preventing a third world war remains the most important, highest priority problem for humanity. In the second half of the 20th century. Nuclear weapons appeared and a real threat arose of the destruction of entire countries and even continents, i.e. almost all modern life.

Solutions:

• Establishing strict control over nuclear and chemical weapons;
• Reduction of conventional weapons and arms trade;
• A general reduction in military spending and the size of the armed forces.

Ecological- degradation of the global ecological system as a result of irrationality and its pollution with waste from human activity.

Solutions:

• Optimization of the use of natural resources in the process of social production;
• Protection of nature from the negative consequences of human activity;
• Environmental safety of the population;
• Creation of specially protected areas.

Demographic- continuation of the demographic explosion, rapid growth of the Earth's population and, as a consequence, overpopulation of the planet.

Solutions:

• Carrying out a thoughtful .

Fuel and raw materials- the problem of reliable provision of humanity with fuel and energy, as a result of the rapid growth in consumption of natural mineral resources.

Solutions:

• Increasing use of energy and heat (solar, wind, tidal, etc.). Development ;

Food- according to FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) and WHO (World Health Organization), from 0.8 to 1.2 billion people are hungry and undernourished in the world.

Solutions:

• An extensive solution is to expand arable land, pastures and fishing grounds.
• The intensive way is an increase in production through mechanization, automation of production, through the development of new technologies, breeding high-yielding, disease-resistant plant varieties and animal breeds.

Use of ocean resources- at all stages of human civilization was one of the most important sources of maintaining life on Earth. Currently, the ocean is not just a single natural space, but also a natural-economic system.

Solutions:

• Creation of a global structure of the maritime economy (allocation of oil production, fishing and zones), improvement of the infrastructure of port-industrial complexes.
• Protection of the waters of the World Ocean from pollution.
• Prohibition of military testing and disposal of nuclear waste.

Peaceful space exploration. Space is a global environment, the common heritage of humanity. Testing various types of weapons could threaten the entire planet at once. "Littering" and "clogging" of outer space.

Solutions:

• "Non-militarization" of outer space.
• International cooperation in space exploration.

Overcoming the backwardness of developing countries- the majority of the world's population lives in poverty and squalor, which can be considered extreme forms of backwardness. Per capita income in some countries is less than $1 per day.

Our Motherland was the first in human history to open the road to space. The planet's space age began with the launch first artificial satellite Earth, launched by the USSR on October 4, 1957, and the world's first cosmonaut - Yu.A. Gagarin. The satellite of the Soviet Union measured the density of the upper atmosphere, obtained data on the propagation of radio signals in the ionosphere, made it possible to work out issues of insertion into orbit, etc. It was an aluminum sphere, the diameter of which was only $58$ cm. The mass of the satellite with four whip antennas was $83.6$ kg. The length of the antennas was $2.4$-$2.9$ m. Inside the satellite there was equipment and power supplies.

Second Soviet satellite entered orbit $3 $November. It was not just a satellite; in its separate sealed cabin there was a passenger – the dog Laika and a telemetry system that recorded the dog’s behavior in zero gravity.

In response to the launch of Soviet satellites on December 6, 1957, the United States attempted to launch its own satellite. Avangard-1" The satellite was to be delivered into low-Earth orbit by a launch vehicle developed by the Navy Research Laboratory. Having risen above the launch pad, a second later the rocket fell, exploding on impact. The experiment ended unsuccessfully.

The following year, 1958, the Americans launched a satellite into orbit. Explorer-1" Having a length of less than $1$ meter, a diameter of $15.2$ cm, and a mass of $4.8$ kg, the satellite was not at all a candidate for record holder. Together with the launch vehicle that launched it into orbit, the mass increased to $14$ kg. The satellite was equipped with sensors to determine external and internal temperatures, erosion and impact sensors to determine micrometeorite flows, and a Geiger-Muller counter to detect penetrating cosmic rays.

Second attempt to put into orbit " Avangard-1"In February 1958, like the first one, it ended in failure, and only on March 17 the satellite was launched into orbit. To put Avangard-1 into orbit, the Americans made $11 attempts from December $1957 to September $1959. Only three attempts were successful. Thanks to satellites, space science has received new data on the density of the upper layers of the atmosphere, and accurate mapping of islands in the Pacific Ocean has been obtained.

In August 1958, the United States tried to launch $$ from Cape Canaveral into the vicinity of the Moon probe with scientific equipment, but the launch vehicle, having flown $77$ km, exploded.

Second attempt to launch a lunar probe " Pioneer-1"in October 1958 also failed. Subsequent launches were also unsuccessful.

Only " Pioneer-4", launched in March $1959, managed to partially fulfill the task - it flew past the Moon at a distance of $60$ thousand km instead of the planned $24$ thousand.

It turns out that the priority is to launch first probe also belonged to the USSR. The Americans sought to overtake the USSR in space exploration, and after the failure to launch an artificial Earth satellite, they turned their attention to the Moon. The decree of the Soviet Government on the launch of stations to the Moon was issued in September 1958.

First launch launch vehicle " Vostok-L"was carried out in January $1959. The rocket launched an automatic interplanetary station (AIS) onto the flight path to the Moon" Luna-1" Having passed at a distance of $6$ thousand km from the lunar surface, Luna-1 entered a heliocentric orbit and became the first spacecraft in the world to reach the second cosmic speed, overcoming gravity, and becoming an artificial satellite of the Sun. The main goal, which was to fly from one celestial body to another, was not achieved, but, nevertheless, it was a huge breakthrough in the exploration of outer space. Science has received practical information in the field of space flights to other celestial bodies. All this was taken into account.

And so, from the Baikonur Cosmodrome on September 12, 1959, an automatic interplanetary station was launched. Luna-2", which already reached the surface of the Moon on September 14, making the first flight in history from one celestial body to another. A pennant was delivered to the lunar surface, on which was inscribed “ USSR».

Space debris problem

Definition 1

All faulty artificial objects and their parts, which are a dangerous factor affecting spacecraft, including manned ones, are called space debris

Space debris poses an immediate and direct danger to the Earth in the form of debris falling onto populated areas, industrial facilities, transport communications, etc.

Inactive satellites, spacecraft and their debris, spent rocket stages, various technical rubbish, etc. revolve around our planet at enormous speed, sometimes $27,000 km/hour, along their own trajectory.

Debris in Earth's orbit began to appear since the late 1950s, this is the time of the launch of the first rockets and artificial satellites, and it is difficult to imagine how much of it has accumulated over almost $60$ years of exploration of near-Earth space. This initially theoretical problem received its official status in December 1993 after the report of the UN Secretary General entitled “The Impact of Space Activities on the Environment.” The problem of space debris is global in nature, because there cannot be contamination of the national near-Earth space, there is contamination of the outer space of the planet. The catastrophic growth of orbital debris can lead to the impossibility of further space exploration. Data from the UN Office for Outer Space Affairs puts the figure for man-made objects at $300$ thousand with a total mass of up to $5$ thousand tons. The number of similar objects with a diameter of more than $1$ cm can reach $100$ thousand, and a small part of them have been discovered.

All detected objects are included in catalogs, for example, the catalog of the US Strategic Command of such objects for $2013 contained $16.6 thousand, most of which were created by the USSR, USA, and China. In the Russian catalog for 2014, $15.8 thousand objects of space debris were recorded. Their high speed creates a threat of collision with active spacecraft. And there are such examples when two artificial satellites collided - Cosmos $2251$ and Iridium $33$. The collision occurred on February 10, 2009. The satellites were completely destroyed and produced more than $600 in debris.

Different countries contribute to the creation of space debris:

1. Chinese space debris – $40$%;
2. USA gives $27.5$%;
3. Russia litters space by $25.5$%;
4. The remaining countries account for $7$%.

There are estimates for 2014:

1. Russia –$39.7$%;
2. USA – $28.9%;
3. China – $22.8$%.

If the size of space debris is more than $1$ cm in diameter, then there are no effective measures to protect against it, therefore, to ensure a solution to the problem of space debris, international cooperation is developing in priority areas.

They are as follows:

1. Mandatory environmental monitoring of near-Earth space – monitoring of debris and maintaining a catalog of space debris objects;
2. The use of mathematical modeling and the creation of international information systems for the purpose of forecasting contamination;
3. Development of means and methods for protecting spacecraft from the effects of space debris;
4. Implementation of measures aimed at reducing debris in the near-Earth space.
5. In the near future, attention should be paid to control measures that would eliminate its formation.

Peaceful space exploration

The era of space exploration requires the implementation of space programs, which means that many countries must concentrate their technical, economic, and intellectual efforts, so the second half of the 20th century has become an arena for multilateral international cooperation. Space exploration is another global problem. In the 1970s, the international organization Intersputnik was created, with its headquarters located in Moscow. Today, space communications through this system are used by more than $100 private and public companies around the world. Astronomers around the world take part in observations at modern orbital observatories. So far, there are space solar power plants in the projects, which are planned to be placed in heliocentric orbit. All the latest achievements of science and technology, production and management lie at the basis of space exploration. Modern technology makes it possible to photograph distant planets and their satellites, conduct research and transmit important data to Earth.

Note 1

Peaceful space exploration means, first of all, the abandonment of military programs.

In 1963, more than $100 countries around the world signed in Moscow the Treaty Banning Tests in Space, Atmosphere, and Underwater of Nuclear Weapons. Space does not belong to anyone, which means that its peaceful exploration is a common task and problem of all countries. Humanity has gone beyond the Earth's atmosphere and begun to explore deep space.

One of the areas of use of outer space is space production. This direction includes the development of new materials, alternative energy sources, and space technologies. They are necessary in order to obtain new alloys, grow crystals, create medicines, carry out installation and welding work, etc.

Humanity is obliged to make space not a battlefield, but foundation for the new Coming. For many years, space has been a space of military-political rivalry, but today it must be turned into an arena of peaceful cooperation. It is very important for all humanity that the exploration of outer space be exclusively peaceful. Russia's strategic priority is the comprehensive expansion and deepening of work in space. The country has a unique space potential, especially for long-duration space flights. In March of this year, the head of Roscosmos A. Perminov, at a meeting with the President of Russia, spoke about the tasks facing the Russian space industry.

The tasks are as follows:

1. Russia must maintain its leading position in space exploration;
2. Provide the country's economy, defense, security, and science with the necessary space information;
3. Join the global space sector;
4. Provide independent access to outer space from its territory.