Liquid released from the vagina in small quantities is not a deviation, but indicates the normal functioning of the reproductive organs. But excessive leucorrhoea causes discomfort (underwear quickly gets wet), and the first suspicions of the presence of internal pathologies of the uterus and appendages appear. Therefore, watery discharge in women, like water, sometimes causes justifiable concern.

Causes of discharge

The main factor influencing the nature of the discharge is the phase of the menstrual cycle. In a healthy body, the reproductive system works like a clock, and it is not difficult to track the intensity of leucorrhoea at any stage. Cycle phases:

With the onset of menopause, the amount of discharge decreases sharply. If this does not happen, then there are significant disturbances in the functioning of the reproductive system.

Other reasons accompanying the monthly cycle that affect the intensity of leucorrhoea:

Transparent discharge without an unpleasant odor is the result of the proper functioning of the reproductive system. If strong aromas, yellow or green color, itching, burning and pain in the lower abdomen are added, then you should check with a specialist for the presence of pathologies.

Quite often, discharge that is liquid like water in women indicates the presence of sexually transmitted diseases or pathologies of the uterus and appendages. List of diseases:

Only a competent gynecologist is able to determine which disease caused the appearance of profuse leucorrhoea. After the examination, the doctor will prescribe the correct medications. You should not self-medicate, it will only aggravate the unpleasant condition.

So that copious, liquid discharge, like water, does not cause anxiety in a woman, it is necessary to follow the rules of prevention:

1. Do not neglect daily hygiene procedures. You need to wash yourself twice a day with warm water.
2. Use special intimate care products with a neutral pH to avoid skin irritation.
3. During critical days, it is necessary to abstain from sexual intercourse.
4. Synthetic underwear should be removed from your wardrobe. Comfortable cotton panties are suitable for every day.
5. Avoid hypothermia.
6. With a new partner, always protect yourself with a condom. It is better to avoid casual sex altogether.
7. Undergo a mandatory annual medical examination with a gynecologist and take all necessary tests.
8. Treat infectious diseases to the end, strictly following the doctor’s instructions.

If watery leucorrhoea appears as a result of violations of hygiene rules, then it will be enough to simply change the care of the intimate organs. Then the disturbing factor will go away within a week.

During pregnancy, a woman's body undergoes significant hormonal changes that affect vaginal discharge. In the first trimester, there is practically no leucorrhoea due to the high level of progesterone. It prevents the formation of new eggs and helps the fertilized egg firmly attach to the walls of the uterus.

From week 12, estrogen levels increase. The interaction of the two hormones causes the mucus to thin out and the leucorrhoea to become stronger.

Closer to 40 weeks, the bladder cannot close completely due to fetal pressure. Therefore, the mucous fluid mixes with a small amount of urine and, as a result, watery leucorrhoea occurs.

In the 2nd and 3rd trimester, the appearance of watery, odorless and colorless discharge in women is an absolutely natural process. Deviations from the norm indicate the presence of pathology. Danger signs:

1. Unpleasant odor (fishy, ​​putrid).
2. Hue. Yellow, green and gray colors indicate the presence of bacteria.
3. Brown color indicates internal bleeding.
4. Discharge that has an atypical structure (foamy).
5. Itching, burning, discomfort in the perineum.
6. The appearance of pain in the lower abdomen.
7. Increased body temperature.

If there are no unpleasant sensations, but the leucorrhoea has a yellowish tint and a sweet smell, then fluid may be leaking from the amniotic sac. This is a very dangerous condition in the middle of pregnancy, as premature labor may begin. Therefore, any deviations must be immediately reported to the gynecologist.

The mucus lining the cervix serves as a natural barrier against infection. It maintains a slightly acidic vaginal environment, which makes it impossible for bacteria to multiply. The secretion of this mucus is a physiological phenomenon for any healthy woman.

But sometimes watery discharge accompanies the development of serious diseases. Also, the volume of mucus secreted increases during pregnancy.

A mucous, watery discharge is as normal as sweat, tears, and saliva. They are classified as physiological fluids of the human body. In addition to the mucus itself, it contains about 10 types of different bacteria that make up the natural microflora, dead particles of the epithelium.

Secretion in a normal state is allowed if it does not have an unpleasant odor, color, and its volume does not exceed the physiological norm.

Watery discharge mid-cycle

Transparent and liquid discharge in women that occurs in the middle of the cycle most often indicates the following:

• the time has come for ovulation, the egg can be fertilized;
• secreted clear mucus indicates the imminent opening of the cervix and the beginning of menstruation;
• a change in the ratio or concentration of female hormones also causes an increase in the volume of secretion, which is manifested by transparent discharge in the middle of the cycle.

2 weeks after menstruation, mucus may indicate fertilization of the egg and the onset of pregnancy.

Discharge before menstruation

Before the onset of menstruation, watery vaginal discharge, thinner than usual, may indicate the development of an inflammatory process and other pathologies. In general, an increase in the volume of secretion before the onset of menstruation develops under the influence of increased production of progesterone and estrogen.

More may appear. Their large volume is provoked by increased blood flow in the uterus, which increases in volume before the onset of critical days.

Vaginal secretion before menstruation in the luteal phase is a physiological norm. Such discharge is especially common in the morning after a night's sleep.

Copious watery vaginal discharge after and instead of menstruation

Watery discharge after menstruation without any odor or color indicates the active functioning of the cervical gland. Within 1-2 days after the end of menstruation, mucus that is colorless or slightly mixed with blood may still appear.

Such secretion instead of menstruation is not normal and is more often caused by the following reasons:

• pregnancy, including ectopic;
• colpitis;
• changes in hormonal levels;
• adnexitis;
• stress, physical overload, climate change.

Menstrual bleeding that ends with copious discharge of odorless and colorless mucus that does not stop within 1-2 days requires clarification of the cause and appropriate treatment.

Watery discharge during pregnancy

During pregnancy, watery secretion can be either a normal physiological phenomenon or a pathology. Such discharge is especially dangerous in the late stages of pregnancy after 36-38 weeks, since it can be nothing more than the release or leakage of water.

Depending on the stage of pregnancy, the causes of watery mucus in women vary:

• in the first trimester, the secretion of water indicates a rapid change in hormonal levels. It appears even before the delay and means fertilization of the egg and successful conception. Excessively abundant discharge during the first weeks serves to protect the fetus from infection;
• in the second trimester, closer to the middle of pregnancy, the concentration of estrogen increases, due to which the glandular layer of the cervix changes the composition of the mucus, making it more liquid;
• In the last trimester, the body begins to prepare for the upcoming birth. But it is precisely after the 30th week that it is necessary to control the volume and consistency of mucus, since it may indicate leakage of water.

You can determine the composition of the discharge even at home using a special amniotest. It will show whether secretion is normal or whether there is leakage of water.

During menopause

When odorless, they may be present, but should not be abundant or have an unpleasant odor. They serve to lubricate the vagina and external genitalia. And if such secretion does not cause burning, itching, or pain, then it does not require treatment.

If the amount of vaginal discharge increases significantly during menopause, an odor appears, the consistency of the mucus changes, it is necessary to take smears to detect bacterial, fungal and other infections, as well as STDs.

Diseases of the genital area

Pathological abundant liquid discharge may have a yellowish or pinkish tint, an unpleasant odor, especially rotten. In addition, in the presence of inflammation of bacterial or viral origin, the consistency of the mucus changes - it becomes thicker or curdled, reminiscent of coffee grounds or cereal.

Mucus with an unpleasant odor is almost always accompanied by pain and other symptoms - burning and itching of the external genitalia, discomfort during urination and even fever.

Bacterial vaginosis

A non-inflammatory process caused by changes in microflora is called bacterial vaginosis. The disease is very common, especially among women under 40 years of age. Vaginosis does not pose a threat to life and health, although it causes a woman a lot of discomfort. The disease manifests itself with symptoms such as burning, profuse, unpleasant-smelling discharge, and itching.

This disease develops when personal hygiene rules are violated or unprotected sexual contacts occur.

If left untreated, the pathology can cause complications after childbirth, miscarriage, and intrauterine infection of the fetus during pregnancy.

Inflammation of the appendages

Leucorrhoea with inflammation of the appendages occurs under the influence of viruses and bacteria against the background of hypothermia or a general decrease in immunity. The main symptoms of the disease are scanty watery discharge, disruption of the menstrual cycle, nagging pain in the lower abdomen and other characteristic signs of the inflammatory process.

In the acute course of the disease, the symptoms are pronounced; in the chronic stage, inflammation of the appendages occurs latently - periodically increasing pain, the appearance of uncharacteristic bleeding in different phases of the cycle, deterioration in general health, pain during sexual intercourse.

Colpitis

With colpitis, inflammation of the vaginal mucosa occurs under the influence of infection. Liquid discharge becomes white, itching, pain and burning in the vagina, discomfort in the lower abdomen.

Most often, this disease occurs in women after 20 years of age, but it can also appear in girls even before the onset of menstruation. The secretion always has an unpleasant odor, causes a state of vaginal distension, itching, and the external genitalia turn red. The development of colpitis occurs when the conditionally pathogenic flora of the vagina is disrupted, with a sharp decrease in immunity, hypothermia, and during pregnancy.

This condition is caused not only by infection, but also by allergic reactions, the use of suppositories and certain medications, the introduction of foreign bodies, and substances included in douching solutions.

Oncological diseases

Cervical cancer and other genital cancers also cause heavy, watery discharge. Most often, the secretion is bloody or brownish in color, but purulent-watery mucus can also be observed.

Any coloring of the discharge indicates necrosis of the tumor itself - its pieces are rejected and excreted from the body. If dead cells remain inside, tissue inflammation develops. Mucus often has a foul odor and a greenish tint.

The appearance of pathological secretion along with other symptoms - periodic bleeding, delays, cycle changes, increased pain during menstruation, the appearance of intermenstrual bleeding - should be a reason for a mandatory visit to the doctor.

Discharge color

The shade of vaginal secretion may indirectly indicate a particular disease that caused increased discharge. Usually the smell is also important, for example, unpleasant, reminiscent of rotten fish, more often indicates a bacterial infection.

Pink

The pink hue of vaginal secretion is given by drops of blood that come out of burst blood vessels. Pink discharge appears after intense sexual intercourse, trauma to the genital organs, in the first months of installing an intrauterine device and taking hormonal contraceptives.

• cervical erosion;
• hyperplasia;
• ectopic pregnancy;
• polyps;
• inflammatory process.

It is necessary to consult a gynecologist if the appearance of pink leucorrhoea is combined with other characteristic symptoms - menstrual irregularities, pain, discomfort.

Yellowish

Liquid yellow discharge in women can also be normal and pathological:

• Normally, mucus with a yellow tint is explained by the peculiarities of hormonal levels and the functioning of the reproductive system. It usually appears immediately before or immediately after menstruation and indicates the presence of a small amount of blood in the mucus;
• in pathological cases, such secretion can accompany colpitis, erosion, adnexitis, and some types of STDs. In addition to color, this mucus is distinguished by an unpleasant odor, swelling and itching of the external genitalia, and pain in the lower abdomen.

Also, a secretion with a yellow tint may appear after abortion, surgery, childbirth, with the development of oncological tumors of the cervix and other organs, improper installation or prolonged wearing of an IUD.

Brown

Mucusy brown vaginal discharge is colored when a small amount of blood gets into the mucus. Most often they occur on the first day of menstruation and after its end for 2-3 days.

In the first weeks of pregnancy, such secretion may indicate the attachment of the egg or pathological development of the fetus.

In the middle of the cycle, small amounts of brown leucorrhoea are called ovulatory bleeding. They talk about the egg’s readiness for fertilization.

Liquid leucorrhoea, which is not combined with other unpleasant symptoms and does not cause discomfort in a woman, does not require medical intervention. But if any unpleasant odor appears, color changes, or an increase in the volume of secretion, it is necessary to undergo an examination and begin taking appropriate therapy.

Aqueous humor circulates along the episcleral and intrascleral venous network of the anterior segmented area of ​​the eyeball. It supports metabolic processes and the trabecular apparatus. Under normal circumstances, the human eye contains 300 mm of the component or 4% of the total volume.

The fluid is produced from the blood by special cells that are part of the structure of the ciliary body. The human eye produces 3-9 ml of the component per minute. The outflow of moisture occurs through the episcleral vessels, uveoscleral system and trabecular meshwork. Intraocular pressure is the ratio of the produced component to the withdrawn component.

What is aqueous humor?

Aqueous humor (intraocular fluid)- a colorless, jelly-like liquid that completely fills the two eye chambers. The composition of the element is very similar to blood. Its only difference is its lower protein content. Moisture is produced at a rate of 2-3 µl/min.

Structure

The aqueous humor of the eye is almost 100% water. The dense component includes:

• anorganic components (chlorine, sulfate, etc.);
• cations (calcium, sodium, magnesium, etc.);
• insignificant proportion of protein;
• glucose;
• ascorbic acid;
• lactic acid;
• amino acids (tryptophan, lysine, etc.);
• enzymes;
• hyaluronic acid;
• oxygen;
• a small amount of antibodies (formed only in the secondary fluid).

Functions

The functional purpose of the liquid consists of the following processes:

• nutrition of the avascular elements of the organ of vision due to the amino acids and glucose included in the component;
• removal of potential threatening factors from the internal environment of the eye;
• organization of a light-refracting environment;
• regulation of intraocular pressure.

Symptoms

The amount of fluid inside the eye may change due to the development of eye diseases or when exposed to external factors (trauma, surgery).

If the moisture outflow system is disrupted, a decrease in intraocular pressure (hypotension) or an increase (hypertonicity) is observed. In the first case, it is likely to appear, which is accompanied by deterioration or complete loss of vision. With increased pressure inside the eye, the patient complains of headache, blurred vision, and the urge to vomit.

The progression of pathological conditions leads to the development of disruption of the process of fluid removal from the organ of vision and its tissues.

Diagnostics

Diagnostic measures for suspected development of pathological conditions in which the intraocular fluid for some reason is in excess, in deficiency, or does not go through the entire circulation process inside the eye, are reduced to the following procedures:

• visual inspection and palpation of the eyeball(the method allows you to determine visible deviations and location of pain);
• ophthalmoscopy of the fundus– a procedure to assess the condition of the retina, optic nerve head and vascular network of the eye using an ophthalmoscope or fundus lens;
• tonometry– an examination that allows you to determine the level of change in the eyeball when exposed to the eye cornea. With normal intraocular pressure, deformation of the sphere of the organ of vision is not observed;
• perimetry– a method for determining visual fields using computer technology or special equipment;
• campimetry– identification of central scotomas and size indicators of the blind spot in the visual field.

Treatment

For the above-mentioned disorders, as part of the therapeutic course, the patient is prescribed medications that restore intraocular pressure, as well as medications that stimulate blood supply and metabolism in the tissues of the organ.

Surgical treatment methods are applicable in cases where drugs do not have the desired effect. The type of surgery performed depends on the type of pathological process.

Thus, the intraocular fluid is a kind of internal environment of the organ of vision. The composition of the element is similar to the structure of blood and provides the functional purpose of moisture. Local pathological processes include disturbances in fluid circulation and deviations in its quantitative indicator.

3 days before ovulation, vaginal discharge becomes very abundant and watery, which is the norm, not a pathology.

Sexual arousal

Some women may experience heavy, watery vaginal discharge immediately after sexual intercourse. This is a variant of the norm and indicates a high surge in hormones and sexual arousal against this background. A woman may produce discharge, similar in consistency to water, for several hours and even days after intercourse.

Pathological causes of watery vaginal discharge

The causes of vaginal discharge, which do not have a pathological picture, were discussed above. That is, they are caused by completely natural physiological processes in a woman’s body.

Also, we have already said that if a woman’s discharge of a watery consistency lasts more than 5 days, then in this case she needs to visit a gynecologist.

Inflammatory process in the body

If the vaginal discharge is watery and very abundant, then this may indicate an acute inflammatory process. In particular, the fallopian tubes, ovaries, and the uterine mucosa may be susceptible to an inflammatory or infectious process.

In this case, the watery discharge will become yellowish within a few days, sometimes mixed with pus or blood. Painful vaginal discharge changes its odor (becomes foul-smelling), as well as color and consistency.

It is important to prevent the development of the inflammatory process in time and stop it. This can only be done if you consult a gynecologist.

1. Organ of smell: structure, functions.

Olfactory organ, organum olfactorium, is a peripheral apparatus of the olfactory analyzer.

It is located in the nasal mucosa, where it occupies the area of ​​the upper nasal passage and the posterosuperior part of the septum, called the olfactory region of the nasal mucosa, regio olfactoria tunicae mucosae nasi.

This section of the nasal mucosa differs from its other sections in its thickness and yellowish-brown color, contains the olfactory glands, glandulae olfactoriae.

The epithelium of the mucous membrane of the olfactory region is called the olfactory epithelium, epithelium olfactorium. It is directly the receptor apparatus of the olfactory analyzer and is represented by three types of cells: olfactory neurosecretory cells, cellulae neurosensoriae olfactoriae, supporting cells, cellulae sustentaculares, and basal cells, cellulae basales.

Olfactory cells are spindle-shaped and end on the surface of the mucous membrane with olfactory vesicles equipped with cilia. The opposite end of each olfactory cell continues into a nerve fiber. Such fibers, connecting into bundles, form olfactory nerves, which, entering the cranial cavity through the openings of the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, transmit irritations to the primary centers of smell, and from there to the cortical end of the olfactory analyzer.

2. Organ of taste: structure, functions. organum gustus

The taste organ is a heterogeneous structure. On average, about 2000 taste buds are located in the tissue of the tongue, palate, epiglottis and upper esophagus. Most of them are located in the mucous membrane of the taste bud (papilla vallatae) of the tongue. Taste buds measure 40 microns by 80 microns. In children and young people, each taste bud contains on average 250 taste buds, but in adults there are only 80. 30 - 80 receptor cells form a taste bud. They consist of auxiliary, secondary and sensory cells and are constantly replaced by new ones. The taste receptor does not have its own nerve fibers, but is in contact through synapses with nerve fibers that pass through the tongue. Nerve fibers gather together and go to cranial nerves VII and IX, and along them to nerve cells in the brain stem. At the top of the taste bud is a passage that opens on the surface to an opening called the taste pore. Through this hole, liquid enters, which contains substances whose taste must be determined. It washes the sensory cells. Taste cells are also chemoreceptors. Their functions have not yet been fully explored. Only four types of taste can be distinguished: sweet, bitter, sour and salty. The combination of these sensations gives us all kinds of taste perception options. Different types of taste sensations depend on different receptors, which are unevenly distributed over the entire surface of the tongue: sweet is felt at the top, salty and sour are felt on the sides of the tongue, and bitter is felt at the base. The organ of taste has been studied much less well than all other sense organs. Since taste and smell receptors work together, an interesting feature of their cooperation can be observed. For example, if you have a runny nose, then you cannot fully experience the taste of the food you are eating.

3.Eye: parts. buildings

The human eye is a paired sensory organ (organ of the Visual System) of a person, which has the ability to perceive electromagnetic radiation in the light wavelength range and provides the function of vision. The eyes are located at the front of the head and, together with the eyelids, eyelashes and eyebrows, are an important part of the face. The area of ​​the face around the eyes is actively involved in facial expressions. They even say that “the eyes are the mirror of the soul.”

The eye can be called a complex optical device. Its main task is to “transmit” the correct image to the optic nerve.

Cornea- a transparent membrane covering the front of the eye. It lacks blood vessels and has great refractive power. Part of the optical system of the eye. The cornea borders the opaque outer layer of the eye - the sclera. Cm. structure of the cornea.

Anterior chamber of the eye- This is the space between the cornea and the iris. It is filled with intraocular fluid.

Iris- shaped like a circle with a hole inside (pupil). The iris consists of muscles that, when contracted and relaxed, change the size of the pupil. It enters the choroid of the eye. The iris is responsible for the color of the eyes (if it is blue, it means there are few pigment cells in it, if it is brown, it means a lot). Performs the same function as the aperture in a camera, regulating the light flow.

Pupil- hole in the iris. Its size usually depends on the light level. The more light, the smaller the pupil.

Lens- the “natural lens” of the eye. It is transparent, elastic - it can change its shape, almost instantly “focusing”, due to which a person sees well both near and far. Located in the capsule, held ciliary girdle. The lens, like the cornea, is part of the optical system of the eye.

Vitreous body- a gel-like transparent substance located in the back of the eye. The vitreous body maintains the shape of the eyeball and is involved in intraocular metabolism. Part of the optical system of the eye.

Retina- consists of photoreceptors (they are sensitive to light) and nerve cells. Receptor cells located in the retina are divided into two types: cones and rods. In these cells, which produce the enzyme rhodopsin, the energy of light (photons) is converted into electrical energy of the nervous tissue, i.e. photochemical reaction.

Rods are highly photosensitivity and allow you to see in low light; they are also responsible for peripheral vision. Cones, on the contrary, require more light for their work, but they allow you to see small details (responsible for central vision) and make it possible to distinguish colors. The largest concentration of cones is located in the central fossa (macula), which is responsible for the highest visual acuity. The retina is adjacent to the choroid, but in many areas it is loose. This is where it tends to peel off in various retinal diseases.

Sclera- the opaque outer layer of the eyeball, which passes into the transparent cornea in the front part of the eyeball. 6 extraocular muscles are attached to the sclera. It contains a small number of nerve endings and blood vessels.

Choroid- lines the posterior part of the sclera, the retina is adjacent to it, with which it is closely connected. The choroid is responsible for the blood supply to intraocular structures. In diseases of the retina, it is very often involved in the pathological process. There are no nerve endings in the choroid, so when it is diseased, there is no pain, which usually signals some kind of problem.

Optic nerve- using the optic nerve, signals from nerve endings are transmitted to the brain.

4.Eyeball: external structure.

Only the anterior, smaller, most convex part of the eyeball is accessible for inspection - cornea, and the surrounding part; the rest, the larger part, lies deep in the orbit.

The eye has an irregular spherical (almost spherical) shape, with a diameter of approximately 24 mm. The length of its sagittal axis is on average 24 mm, horizontal - 23.6 mm, vertical - 23.3 mm. The average volume of an adult is 7.448 cm3. The weight of the eyeball is 7-8 g.

The size of the eyeball is on average the same in all people, differing only in fractions of millimeters.

There are two poles in the eyeball: anterior and posterior. Anterior pole corresponds to the most convex central part of the anterior surface of the cornea, and posterior pole located in the center of the posterior segment of the eyeball, slightly outside the exit site of the optic nerve.

The line connecting both poles of the eyeball is called outer axis of the eyeball. The distance between the anterior and posterior poles of the eyeball is its largest size and is approximately 24 mm.

Another axis in the eyeball is the internal axis - it connects a point on the inner surface of the cornea, corresponding to its anterior pole, with a point on the retina, corresponding to the posterior pole of the eyeball; its average size is 21.5 mm.

5.Eyeball: membranes.

The eyeball is a sphere with a diameter of about 25 mm, consisting of three membranes. The outer, fibrous membrane consists of an opaque sclera about 1 mm thick, which passes into the cornea in front.

On the outside, the sclera is covered with a thin transparent mucous membrane - the conjunctiva. The middle layer is called the choroid. From its name it is clear that it contains a lot of vessels that nourish the eyeball. It forms, in particular, the ciliary body and the iris. The inner layer of the eye is the retina. The eye also has appendages, in particular the eyelids and lacrimal organs. Eye movements are controlled by six muscles - four rectus muscles and two oblique muscles.

6. Eyeball: fibrous membrane.

Fibrous membrane of the eyeball (tunica fibrosa bulbi oculi,PNA; tunica fibrosa oculi, BNA; tunica externa oculi, JNA) is a fibrous membrane (a layer of connective tissue) that gives the eyeball its shape and also performs a protective function. The fibrous membrane of the eyeball distinguishes two sections: the anterior section - the cornea and the posterior section - the sclera. Both sections of the fibrous membrane have a border between themselves, called a shallow circular groove (lat. sulcus sclerae)

7. Choroid of the eyeball, tunica vasculosa bulbi, a membrane rich in blood vessels, soft, dark-colored from the pigment it contains, lies immediately under the sclera. It distinguishes three sections: the choroid itself, the ciliary body and the iris.

1. The choroid proper, choroidea, is the posterior, large section of the choroid. Due to the constant movement of the choroidea during accommodation, a slit-like lymphatic space, spatium perichoroideae, is formed between both membranes.

2. Ciliary body, corpus ciliare, - the anterior thickened part of the choroid, is located in the form of a circular ridge in the area of ​​​​the transition of the sclera to the cornea. With its posterior edge, forming the so-called ciliary circle, orbiculus ciliaris, the ciliary body directly continues into the choroidea. Anteriorly, the ciliary body connects to the outer edge of the iris.

Due to the abundance and special structure of the vessels of the ciliary processes, they secrete liquid - the moisture of the chambers. The other part - accommodative - is formed by an involuntary muscle, m.ciliaris. Circular fibers help accommodation by moving the anterior part of the ciliary processes.

3. Iris, or iris, iris, makes up the most anterior part of the choroid and has the appearance of a circular, vertically standing plate with a round hole called the pupil, pupilla.

The iris plays the role of a diaphragm, regulating the amount of light entering the eye, due to which the pupil narrows in strong light and dilates in weak light. The iris is divided into the anterior surface, facies anterior, facing the cornea, and the posterior, facies posterior, adjacent to the lens

The impermeability of the diaphragm to light is achieved by the presence of a double-layer pigment epithelium on its posterior surface.

8. Retina, or retina, retina,- the innermost of the three membranes of the eyeball, adjacent to the choroid along its entire length up to the pupil and consists of two parts; the external one, containing pigment, pars pigmentosa, and the internal one, pars nervosa, which is divided according to its function and structure into two sections: the posterior one contains photosensitive elements - pars optica retinae, and the anterior one does not contain them.

The boundary between them is marked by a serrated edge, ora serrata, passing at the level of the transition of the choroidea into the orbiculus ciliaris of the ciliary body.

The retina contains light-sensitive visual cells, the peripheral ends of which are shaped like rods and cones. Since they are located in the outer layer of the retina, adjacent to the pigment layer, light rays must pass through the entire thickness of the retina to reach them. The macula contains only cones and no rods

9. The eye consists of two systems: 1) the optical system of the light-refracting midstream and 2) the receptor system of the retina. In the light-refracting medium of the eye one can see: the cornea, the aqueous layer of the anterior chamber of the eye, the crystalline and the corpus corpus. The skin of these midsections shows its own signs of fractured changes. The eye is an organ of vision, a very foldable organ that senses that it receives the action of light. The human eye fights with the singing part of the spectrum. Nowadays, the electromagnetic wave is approximately 400 to 800 nm, so that when the afferent impulses arrive in the visual analyzer of the brain, visual sounds are heard.

10. Cameras of the eye.

Anterior chamber of the eye. Posterior chamber of the eye. The space located between the anterior surface of the iris and the posterior side of the cornea is called the anterior chamber of the eyeball, camera anterior bulbi. The anterior and posterior walls of the chamber come together along its circumference in the angle formed by the transition of the cornea into the sclera, on the one hand, and the ciliary edge of the iris, on the other. This angle, angulus iridocornealis, is rounded by a network of crossbars. Between the crossbars there are slot-like spaces. Angulus iridocornealis has an important physiological significance in terms of the circulation of fluid in the chamber, which, through the indicated spaces, is emptied into the venous sinus located nearby in the thickness of the sclera. Behind the iris there is a narrower posterior chamber of the eye, camera posterior bulbi, which also includes the spaces between the fibers of the ciliary girdle; behind it is limited by the lens, and on the side by the corpus ciliare. Through the pupil, the posterior chamber communicates with the anterior one. Both chambers of the eye are filled with a transparent liquid - aqueous humor, humor aquosus, the outflow of which occurs into the venous sinus of the sclera.

11. Aqueous humor of the eye

Aqueous humor of the chambers of the eye (lat. humor aquosus) is a transparent liquid that fills the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye. Its composition is similar to blood plasma, but has a lower protein content.

FORMATION OF WATERY MOISTURE

Aqueous humor is formed by special non-pigmented epithelial cells of the ciliary body from the blood.

The human eye produces from 3 to 9 ml of aqueous humor per day.

CIRCULATION OF AQUEOUS MOISTURE

Aqueous humor is formed by processes of the ciliary body, secreted into the posterior chamber of the eye, and from there through the pupil into the anterior chamber of the eye. On the anterior surface of the iris, the aqueous humor rises upward due to the higher temperature, and then descends from there along the cold posterior surface of the cornea. Next, it is absorbed in the corner of the anterior chamber of the eye (angulus iridocornealis) and through the trabecular meshwork enters Schlemm’s canal, from there again into the bloodstream.

FUNCTIONS OF AQUEOUS HUMOR

Aqueous humor contains nutrients (amino acids, glucose) that are necessary to nourish the nonvascularized parts of the eye: lens, corneal endothelium, trabecular meshwork, anterior vitreous.

Due to the presence of immunoglobulins in the aqueous humor and its constant circulation, it helps remove potentially dangerous factors from the inside of the eye.

Aqueous humor is a light-refracting medium.

The ratio of the amount of aqueous humor formed to that removed determines intraocular pressure.

12. Additional structures of the eye (structurae oculi accessoriae) include:

Eyebrow (supercilium);

Eyelids (palpebrae);

External muscles of the eyeball (musculi externi bulbi oculi);

Lacrimal apparatus (apparatus lacrimalis);

Connective shell; conjunctiva (tunica conjunctiva);

Orbital fasciae (fasciae orbitales);

Connective tissue formations, which include:

Periosteum of the orbit (periorbita);

Orbital septum (septum orbitale);

Vagina of the eyeball (vagina bulbi);

Suprapyllous space; episcleral space (spatium episclerale);

Fatty body of the orbit (corpus adiposum orbitae);

Muscular fasciae (fasciae musculares).

19. Outer ear(auris externa) - part of the hearing organ; is part of the peripheral section of the auditory analyzer. The outer ear consists of the pinna and the external auditory canal. Auricle formed by elastic cartilage of complex shape, covered with perichondrium and skin, and contains rudimentary muscles. Its lower part - the lobe - is devoid of a cartilaginous skeleton and is formed by fatty tissue covered with skin. The auricle has depressions and elevations, among which are the helix, the helix leg, the antihelix, the tubercle, the tragus, the antitragus, etc. The auricle, narrowing funnel-shaped, passes into the external auditory canal, which has the shape of a tube ending at the eardrum. External auditory canal with consists of two sections: membranous-cartilaginous outside and bone inside: in the middle of the bone section there is a slight narrowing. The membranous-cartilaginous section of the external auditory canal is displaced downward and anteriorly in relation to the bone. In the lower and anterior walls of the membranous-cartilaginous section of the external auditory canal, the cartilage is not located as a solid plate, but in fragments, the gaps between which are filled with fibrous tissue and loose fiber; the posterior and upper walls do not have a cartilaginous layer. The skin of the auricle continues onto the walls of the membranous-cartilaginous section of the external auditory canal; the skin contains hair follicles, sebaceous and sulfur glands. The secretion of the glands mixes with the sloughing cells of the stratum corneum of the epidermis and forms earwax, which dries out and is usually released in small portions from the ear canal when the lower jaw moves. The walls of the bony part of the external auditory canal are covered with thin skin (approximately 0.1 mm), it does not contain either hair follicles or glands, its epithelium extends to the outer surface of the eardrum.

20. pinna 21. external auditory canal. See question 19

22.Middle ear(lat. auris media) - part of the auditory system of mammals (including humans), developed from the bones of the lower jaw and ensures the conversion of air vibrations into vibrations of the fluid that fills the inner ear. The main part of the middle ear is the tympanic cavity - a small space with a volume of about 1 cm³ located in the temporal bone. There are three auditory ossicles: the malleus, the incus and the stirrup - they transmit sound vibrations from the outer ear to the inner ear, simultaneously amplifying them.

The auditory ossicles, as the smallest fragments of the human skeleton, represent a chain that transmits vibrations. The handle of the malleus is closely fused with the eardrum, the head of the malleus is connected to the incus, and that, in turn, with its long process, is connected to the stapes. The base of the stapes closes the window of the vestibule, thus connecting to the inner ear.

The middle ear cavity is connected to the nasopharynx through the Eustachian tube, through which the average air pressure inside and outside the eardrum is equalized. When external pressure changes, the ears sometimes become blocked, which is usually resolved by yawning reflexively. Experience shows that ear congestion is solved even more effectively by swallowing movements or by blowing into a pinched nose at this moment (the latter can cause pathogenic bacteria to enter the ear from the nasopharynx).

23.Tympanic cavity It has a very small size (volume about 1 cm3) and resembles a tambourine placed on its edge, strongly inclined towards the external auditory canal. There are six walls in the tympanic cavity: 1. The lateral wall of the tympanic cavity, paries membranaceus, is formed by the tympanic membrane and the bony plate of the external auditory canal. The upper dome-shaped expanded part of the tympanic cavity, recessus membranae tympani superior, contains two auditory ossicles; the head of the malleus and the incus. In case of disease, pathological changes in the middle ear are most pronounced in this recessus. 2. The medial wall of the tympanic cavity is adjacent to the labyrinth, and therefore is called labyrinthine, paries labyrinthicus. It has two windows: a round window, the window of the cochlea - fenestra cochleae, leading into the cochlea and covered by the membrana tympani secundaria, and an oval window, the window of the vestibule - fenestra vestibuli, opening into the vestibulum labyrinthi. The base of the third auditory ossicle, the stapes, is inserted into the last hole. 3. The posterior wall of the tympanic cavity, paries mastoideus, bears an elevation, eminentia pyramidalis, for placing m. stapedius Recessus membranae tympani superior continues posteriorly into the cave of the mastoid process, antrum mastoideum, where the air cells of the latter open, cellulae mastoideae. Antrum mastoideum is a small cavity protruding towards the mastoid process, from the outer surface of which it is separated by a layer of bone bordering the posterior wall of the auditory canal immediately behind the spina suprameatica, where the cave is usually opened during suppuration in the mastoid process.

4. The anterior wall of the tympanic cavity is called paries caroticus, since the internal carotid artery is close to it. In the upper part of this wall there is an internal opening of the auditory tube, ostium tympanicum tubae auditivae, which gapes widely in newborns and young children, which explains the frequent penetration of infection from the nasopharynx into the middle ear cavity and further into the skull. 5. The upper wall of the tympanic cavity, paries tegmentalis, corresponds to the tegmen tympani on the anterior surface of the pyramid and separates the tympanic cavity from the cranial cavity. 6. The lower wall, or bottom, of the tympanic cavity, paries jugularis, faces the base of the skull adjacent to the fossa jugularis.