Who put an end to the golden horde. The reign of the golden horde is brief. Ethnic and economic geography. Administrative-territorial division

The Golden Horde (Ulus Jochi) is a medieval state in Eurasia.

Beginning of the era of the Golden Horde

The formation and formation of the Golden Horde begins in 1224. The state was founded by the Mongol Khan Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, and until 1266 was part of the Mongol Empire, after which it became independent, retaining only formal subordination to the Empire. Most of the population of the state were Volga Bulgars, Mordovians, Mari. In 1312 the Golden Horde became an Islamic state. In the 15th c. a single state broke up into several khanates, the main among which was the Great Horde. The Great Horde lasted until the middle of the 16th century, but other khanates fell apart much earlier.

The name "Golden Horde" was first used by Russians after the fall of the state, in 1556, in one of the historical works. Prior to this, the state was designated differently in different annals.

Territories of the Golden Horde

The Mongol Empire, from which the Golden Horde came, occupied territories from the Danube to the Sea of ​​Japan and from Novgorod to Southeast Asia. In 1224, Genghis Khan divided the Mongol Empire between his sons, and one of the parts went to Jochi. A few years later, the son of Jochi - Batu - undertook several military campaigns and expanded the territory of his khanate to the west, the Lower Volga region became a new center. From that moment on, the Golden Horde began to constantly capture new territories. As a result, at the time of its heyday, most of the modern Russia(Besides Far East, Siberia and the Far North), Kazakhstan, Ukraine, part of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.

In the 13th c. The Mongol Empire, which seized power in Russia (), was on the verge of collapse, and Russia came under the rule of the Golden Horde. However, the Russian principalities were not directly ruled by the khans of the Golden Horde. The princes were only forced to pay tribute to the Golden Horde officials, and soon this function came under the control of the princes themselves. However, the Horde was not going to lose the conquered territories, so its troops regularly made punitive campaigns against Russia in order to keep the princes in subjection. Russia remained subject to the Golden Horde almost until the very collapse of the Horde.

State structure and control system of the Golden Horde

Since the Golden Horde emerged from the Mongol Empire, the descendants of Genghis Khan were at the head of the state. The territory of the Horde was divided into allotments (uluses), each of which had its own khan, however, smaller uluses were subordinate to one main one, where the supreme khan ruled. Ulus division was initially unstable and the borders of uluses were constantly changing.

As a result of the administrative-territorial reform at the beginning of the 14th century. the territories of the main uluses were allocated and fixed, as well as the positions of ulus managers - ulusbeks, who were subordinate to smaller officials - viziers, were introduced. In addition to the khans and ulusbeks, there was a people's assembly - kurultai, which was convened only in emergency cases.

The Golden Horde was a semi-military state, so administrative and military posts were often combined. The most important positions were held by members of the ruling dynasty who were related to the khan and owned lands; smaller administrative positions could be occupied by feudal lords of the middle class, and the army was recruited from the people.

The capitals of the Horde were:

• Sarai-Batu (near Astrakhan) - under the rule of Batu;
• Saray-Berke (near Volgograd) - from the first half of the 14th century.

In general, the Golden Horde was a multiform and multinational state, therefore, in addition to the capitals, there were several large centers in each of the regions. The Horde also had trading colonies on the Sea of ​​Azov.

Trade and economy of the Golden Horde

The Golden Horde was a trading state, actively engaged in buying and selling, and also had multiple trading colonies. The main goods were: fabrics, linen, weapons, jewelry and other jewelry, furs, leather, honey, timber, grain, fish, caviar, olive oil. Trade routes to Europe, Central Asia, China and India began from the territories that belonged to the Golden Horde.

In addition, the Horde received a significant part of its income from military campaigns (robbery), the collection of tribute (the yoke in Russia) and the conquest of new territories.

End of the era of the Golden Horde

The Golden Horde consisted of several uluses, subordinate to the authority of the Supreme Khan. After the death of Khan Janibek in 1357, the first turmoil began, caused by the lack of a single heir and the desire of the khans to compete for power. The struggle for power became the main reason for the further collapse of the Golden Horde.

In the 1360s Khorezm seceded from the state.

In 1362, Astrakhan separated, the lands on the Dnieper were captured by the Lithuanian prince.

In 1380, the Tatars were defeated by the Russians in an attempt to attack Russia.

In 1380-1395. the turmoil ceased and the power again submitted to the great khan. During this period, successful campaigns of the Tatars against Moscow were made.

However, in the late 1380s. Horde attempts were made to attack the territory of Tamerlane, which were unsuccessful. Tamerlane defeated the troops of the Horde, ruined the Volga cities. The Golden Horde received a blow, which was the beginning of the collapse of the empire.

At the beginning of the 15th century. from the Golden Horde, new khanates were formed (Siberian, Kazan, Crimean, etc.). The khanates were ruled by the Great Horde, but the dependence of new territories on it gradually weakened, and the power of the Golden Horde over Russia also weakened.

In 1480, Russia finally freed itself from the oppression of the Mongol-Tatars.

At the beginning of the 16th century. The Great Horde, left without small khanates, ceased to exist.

Kichi Muhammad was the last khan of the Golden Horde.

K: Disappeared in 1483

Golden Horde (Ulus Jochi, Turk. Ulu Ulus- "Great State") - a medieval state in Eurasia.

Title and borders

Name "Golden Horde" was first used in Russia in 1566 in the historical and journalistic work "Kazan History", when the state itself no longer existed. Until that time, in all Russian sources, the word " Horde" used without adjective " Golden". Since the 19th century, the term has been firmly entrenched in historiography and is used to refer to the Jochi ulus as a whole, or (depending on the context) its western part with its capital in Sarai.

In the actual Golden Horde and eastern (Arab-Persian) sources, the state did not have a single name. It is usually referred to as " ulus”, with the addition of some epithet ( "Ulug ulus") or the ruler's name ( Ulus Berke), and not necessarily acting, but also reigning earlier (" Uzbek, ruler of the Berke countries», « ambassadors of Tokhtamyshkhan, sovereign of the Uzbek land"). Along with this, the old geographical term was often used in the Arab-Persian sources Desht-i-Kipchak. Word " horde” in the same sources denoted the headquarters (mobile camp) of the ruler (examples of its use in the meaning of “country” begin to be found only from the 15th century). The combination " Golden Horde" (Persian آلتان اوردون ‎, Urdu-i Zarrin) meaning " golden parade tent” is found in the description of an Arab traveler in relation to the residence of Khan Uzbek. In Russian chronicles, the word "horde" usually meant an army. Its use as the name of the country becomes constant from the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries, until that time the term "Tatars" was used as the name. In Western European sources, the names " Komanov country», « Comania" or " power of the Tatars», « the land of the Tatars», « Tataria» . The Chinese called the Mongols " Tatars"(tar-tar).

The Arab historian Al-Omari, who lived in the first half of the 14th century, defined the boundaries of the Horde as follows:

Story

Formation of Ulus Jochi (Golden Horde)

The division of the empire by Genghis Khan between his sons, carried out by 1224, can be considered the emergence of the Ulus of Jochi. After the Western campaign (1236-1242), led by the son of Jochi Batu (in the Russian chronicles Batu), the ulus expanded to the west and the Lower Volga region became its center. In 1251, a kurultai took place in the capital of the Mongol Empire, Karakorum, where Mongke, the son of Tolui, was proclaimed the great khan. Batu, "senior of the family" ( aka), supported Möngke, probably hoping to gain full autonomy for his ulus. Opponents of the Jochids and Toluids from the descendants of Chagatai and Ogedei were executed, and the possessions confiscated from them were divided among Mongke, Batu and other Chingizids who recognized their power.

Separation from the Mongol Empire

With the direct support of Nogai, Tokhta (1291-1312) was placed on the Sarai throne. At first, the new ruler obeyed his patron in everything, but soon, relying on the steppe aristocracy, he opposed him. The long struggle ended in 1299 with the defeat of Nogai, and the unity of the Golden Horde was again restored.

Rise of the Golden Horde

During the reign of Khan Uzbek (1313-1341) and his son Janibek (1342-1357), the Golden Horde reached its peak. In the early 1320s, Uzbek Khan proclaimed Islam the state religion, threatening "infidels" with physical violence. The rebellions of the emirs who did not want to convert to Islam were brutally suppressed. The time of his khanate was distinguished by severe punishment. Russian princes, going to the capital of the Golden Horde, wrote spiritual testaments and paternal instructions to children, in case of their death there. Several of them, in fact, were killed. Uzbek built the city of Saray al-Jedid ("New Palace"), paid much attention to the development of caravan trade. Trade routes have become not only safe, but also well-maintained. The Horde conducted a brisk trade with the countries of Western Europe, Asia Minor, Egypt, India, China. After Uzbek, his son Dzhanibek, whom the Russian chronicles call "good" came to the throne of the khanate.

"Great Jam"

From 1359 to 1380, more than 25 khans changed on the throne of the Golden Horde, and many uluses tried to become independent. This time in Russian sources was called the "Great Zamyatnya".

Even during the life of Khan Dzhanibek (no later than 1357), his Khan Ming-Timur was proclaimed in the Ulus of Shiban. And the murder in 1359 of Khan Berdibek (son of Dzhanibek) put an end to the Batuid dynasty, which caused the emergence of various pretenders to the Sarai throne from among the eastern branches of the Jochids. Taking advantage of the instability of the central government, a number of regions of the Horde for some time, following the Ulus of Shiban, acquired their own khans.

The rights to the Horde throne of the impostor Kulpa were immediately questioned by the son-in-law and at the same time the beklarbek of the murdered khan, the temnik Mamai. As a result, Mamai, who was the grandson of Isatay, an influential emir from the time of Khan Uzbek, created an independent ulus in the western part of the Horde, up to the right bank of the Volga. Not being Genghisides, Mamai did not have the right to the title of khan, therefore he limited himself to the position of beklarbek under the puppet khans from the Batuid clan.

Khans from Ulus Shiban, descendants of Ming-Timur, tried to gain a foothold in Saray. They did not really succeed, the rulers changed with kaleidoscopic speed. The fate of the khans largely depended on the favor of the merchant elite of the cities of the Volga region, which was not interested in a strong khan's power.

Following the example of Mamai, other descendants of the emirs also showed a desire for independence. Tengiz-Buga, also the grandson of Isatai, tried to create an independent ulus on the Syr Darya. The Jochids, who rebelled against Tengiz-Buga in 1360 and killed him, continued his separatist policy, proclaiming a khan from among themselves.

Salchen, the third grandson of the same Isatai and at the same time the grandson of Khan Dzhanibek, captured Hadji Tarkhan. Hussein-Sufi, son of Emir Nangudai and grandson of Khan Uzbek, created an independent ulus in Khorezm in 1361. In 1362, the Lithuanian prince Olgerd seized lands in the Dnieper basin.

The turmoil in the Golden Horde ended after Genghisid Tokhtamysh, with the support of Emir Tamerlane from Maverannakhr, in 1377-1380, first captured the uluses on the Syr Darya, defeating the sons of Urus Khan, and then the throne in Saray, when Mamai came into direct conflict with the Moscow principality (defeat on Vozha (1378)). Tokhtamysh in 1380 defeated the remnants of the troops gathered by Mamai after the defeat in the Battle of Kulikovo on the Kalka River.

Tokhtamysh's reign

During the reign of Tokhtamysh (1380-1395), the unrest ceased and the central government again began to control the entire main territory of the Golden Horde. In 1382, the Khan made a campaign against Moscow and achieved the restoration of tribute payments. After strengthening his position, Tokhtamysh opposed the Central Asian ruler Tamerlane, with whom he had previously maintained allied relations. As a result of a series of devastating campaigns of 1391-1396, Tamerlane defeated the troops of Tokhtamysh on the Terek, captured and destroyed the Volga cities, including Saray-Berke, plundered the cities of Crimea, etc. The Golden Horde was dealt a blow from which it could no longer recover.

The collapse of the Golden Horde

Since the sixties of the XIV century, since the time of the Great Memory, there have been important political changes in the life of the Golden Horde. The gradual disintegration of the state began. The rulers of the remote parts of the ulus acquired de facto independence, in particular, in 1361, the Ulus Orda-Ejen gained independence. However, until the 1390s, the Golden Horde still remained more or less a single state, but with the defeat in the war with Tamerlane and the ruin of economic centers, the process of disintegration began, accelerating from the 1420s.

In the early 1420s, the Siberian Khanate was formed, in 1428 the Uzbek Khanate, then the Kazan (1438), Crimean (1441) Khanates, the Nogai Horde (1440s) and the Kazakh Khanate (1465) arose. After the death of Khan Kichi-Mohammed, the Golden Horde ceased to exist as a single state.

The main among the Jochid states formally continued to be considered the Great Horde. In 1480, Akhmat, Khan of the Great Horde, tried to achieve obedience from Ivan III, but this attempt ended unsuccessfully, and Russia finally freed itself from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. At the beginning of 1481, Akhmat was killed during an attack on his headquarters by the Siberian and Nogai cavalry. Under his children, at the beginning of the 16th century, the Great Horde ceased to exist.

State structure and administrative division

According to traditional device nomadic states, Ulus Jochi after 1242 was divided into two wings: right (western) and left (eastern). The eldest was considered the right wing, which was Ulus Batu. The west of the Mongols was designated in white, so the Batu Ulus was called the White Horde (Ak Orda). The right wing covered the territory of western Kazakhstan, the Volga region, North Caucasus, Don and Dnieper steppes, Crimea. Its center was Sarai-Batu.

The wings, in turn, were divided into uluses owned by other sons of Jochi. Initially, there were about 14 such uluses. Plano Carpini, who made a trip to the east in 1246-1247, identifies the following leaders in the Horde, indicating the places of nomads: Kuremsu on the western bank of the Dnieper, Mautsi on the east, Kartan, married to Batu's sister, in the Don steppes, Batu himself on the Volga and two thousand people along the two banks of the Dzhaik (Ural River). Berke held lands in the North Caucasus, but in 1254 Batu took these possessions for himself, ordering Berke to move east of the Volga.

At first, the ulus division was unstable: possessions could be transferred to other persons and change their boundaries. At the beginning of the XIV century, Khan Uzbek carried out a major administrative-territorial reform, according to which the right wing of the Juchi Ulus was divided into 4 large uluses: Saray, Khorezm, Crimea and Desht-i-Kypchak, headed by ulus emirs (ulusbeks) appointed by the khan. The main ulusbek was beklyarbek. The next most important dignitary was the vizier. The other two positions were occupied by especially noble or distinguished dignitaries. These four regions were divided into 70 small possessions (tumens), headed by temniks.

Uluses were divided into smaller possessions, also called uluses. The latter were administrative-territorial units of various sizes, which depended on the rank of the owner (temnik, thousand's manager, centurion, foreman).

The city of Sarai-Batu (near modern Astrakhan) became the capital of the Golden Horde under Batu; in the first half of the 14th century, the capital was moved to Saray-Berke (founded by Khan Berke (1255-1266) near present-day Volgograd). Under Khan Uzbek, Sarai-Berke was renamed into Sarai Al-Dzhedid.

Army

The overwhelming majority of the Horde army was the cavalry, which used the traditional tactics of fighting with mobile cavalry masses of archers in battle. Its core was heavily armed detachments, consisting of the nobility, the basis of which was the guard of the Horde ruler. In addition to the Golden Horde warriors, the khans recruited soldiers from among the conquered peoples, as well as mercenaries from the Volga region, Crimea and the North Caucasus. The main weapon of the Horde warriors was the bow, which the Horde used with great skill. Spears were also widespread, used by the Horde during a massive spear strike that followed the first strike with arrows. Of the bladed weapons, broadswords and sabers were the most popular. Crushing weapons were also widespread: maces, shestopers, coinage, klevtsy, flails.

Among the Horde warriors, lamellar and laminar metal shells were common, from the 14th century - chain mail and ring-plate armor. The most common armor was khatangu-degel, reinforced from the inside with metal plates (kuyak). Despite this, the Horde continued to use lamellar shells. The Mongols also used brigantine-type armor. Mirrors, necklaces, bracers and greaves became widespread. Swords were almost universally replaced by sabers. From the end of the 14th century, guns appeared in service. Horde warriors also began to use field fortifications, in particular, large easel shields - chaparras. In field combat, they also used some military technical means, in particular, crossbows.

Population

Turkic (Kipchaks, Volga Bulgars, Khorezmians, Bashkirs, etc.), Slavic, Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Cheremis, Votyaks, etc.), North Caucasian (Yases, Alans, Cherkasy, etc.) peoples lived in the Golden Horde. The small Mongolian elite very quickly assimilated among the local Turkic population. By the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV century. the nomadic population of the Golden Horde was designated by the ethnonym "Tatars".

The ethnogenesis of the Volga, Crimean, Siberian Tatars took place in the Golden Horde. The Turkic population of the eastern wing of the Golden Horde formed the basis of the modern Kazakhs, Karakalpaks and Nogays.

Cities and trade

On the lands from the Danube to the Irtysh, 110 urban centers with an oriental material culture have been archaeologically recorded, which flourished in the first half of the 14th century. The total number of the Golden Horde cities, apparently, approached 150. The major centers of mainly caravan trade were the cities of Sarai-Batu, Sarai-Berke, Uvek, Bulgar, Khadzhi-Tarkhan, Beljamen, Kazan, Dzhuketau, Madzhar, Mokhshi, Azak ( Azov), Urgench and others.

The trading colonies of the Genoese in the Crimea (captainship of Gothia) and at the mouth of the Don were used by the Horde to trade in cloth, fabrics and linen, weapons, women's jewelry, jewelry, precious stones, spices, incense, furs, leather, honey, wax, salt, grain , forest, fish, caviar, olive oil and slaves.

From the Crimean trading cities, trade routes began, leading both to southern Europe, and to Central Asia, India and China. Trade routes leading to Central Asia and Iran followed the Volga. Through the Volgodonsk perevoloka there was a connection with the Don and through it with the Sea of ​​Azov and the Black Sea.

Foreign and domestic trade relations were provided by the issued money of the Golden Horde: silver dirhams, copper puls and sums.

rulers

In the first period, the rulers of the Golden Horde recognized the supremacy of the great kaan of the Mongol Empire.

Khans

1. Munke-Timur (1269-1282), the first Khan of the Golden Horde, independent of the Mongol Empire
2. Tuda Mengu (1282-1287)
3. Tula Buga (1287-1291)
4. Tokhta (1291-1312)
5. Uzbek Khan (1313-1341)
6. Tinibeck (1341-1342)
7. Janibek (1342-1357)
8. Berdibek (1357-1359), the last representative of the Batu clan
9. Kulpa (August 1359-January 1360)
10. Nauruz Khan (January-June 1360)
11. Khizr Khan (June 1360-August 1361), the first representative of the Horde-Ejen family
12. Timur-Khoja Khan (August-September 1361)
13. Ordumelik (September-October 1361), the first representative of the Tuka-Timur clan
14. Kildibek (October 1361-September 1362)
15. Murad Khan (September 1362-Autumn 1364)
16. Mir Pulad (autumn 1364-September 1365), the first representative of the Shibana clan
17. Aziz Sheikh (September 1365-1367)
18. Abdullah Khan (1367-1368)
19. Hassan Khan, (1368-1369)
20. Abdullah Khan (1369-1370)
21. Muhammad Bulak Khan (1370-1372), under the regency of Tulunbek Khanum
22. Urus Khan (1372-1374)
23. Circassian Khan (1374-early 1375)
24. Muhammad Bulak Khan (beginning 1375-June 1375)
25. Urus Khan (June-July 1375)
26. Muhammad Bulak Khan (July 1375-late 1375)
27. Kaganbek (Aibek Khan) (late 1375-1377)
28. Arabshah (Kary Khan) (1377-1380)
29. Tokhtamysh (1380-1395)
30. Timur Kutlug (1395-1399)
31. Shadibek (1399-1408)
32. Pulad Khan (1407-1411)
33. Timur Khan (1411-1412)
34. Jalal ad-Din Khan (1412-1413)
35. Kerimberdy (1413-1414)
36. Chocre (1414-1416)
37. Jabbar-Berdi (1416-1417)
38. Dervish Khan (1417-1419)
39. Ulu Muhammad (1419-1423)
40. Barak Khan (1423-1426)
41. Ulu Muhammad (1426-1427)
42. Barak Khan (1427-1428)
43. Ulu Muhammad (1428-1432)
44. Kichi-Mohammed (1432-1459)

Beklarbeki

see also

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Notes

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30. Karamzin N. M. .
31. Solovyov S. M. .
33. There is a point of view that the division into the White Horde and the Blue Horde applies only to the eastern wing, denoting, respectively, the ulus of the Horde-Ejen and the ulus of Shiban.
34. Guillaume de Rubruk. .
35. Egorov V.L. Historical geography of the Golden Horde in the XIII-XIV centuries. - M .: Nauka, 1985. - S. 163-164.
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39. Commander-in-Chief of the Army of the Mongol Empire
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• Kargalov, V. V. The overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. M.; URSS, 2010.
• Pochekaev R. Yu. Kings of the Horde. St. Petersburg: Eurasia, 2010.
• Kargalov, V.V. The end of the Horde yoke. 3rd ed. M.: URSS, 2011.
• Kargalov, V.V. Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia. XIII century. 2nd ed. Moscow: Librocom, 2011 (Academy fundamental research: story).
• Tulibayeva Zh. M. "Ulus-i arba-yi Chingizi" as a source for studying the history of the Golden Horde // Golden Horde civilization. Digest of articles. Issue 4. - Kazan: Institute of History. Sh. Marjani AN RT, 2011. - S. 79-100.

Links

An excerpt characterizing the Golden Horde

“Yes, I know, just listen to me, for God’s sake. Just ask the nanny. They say they do not agree to leave on your orders.
- You don't say anything. Yes, I never ordered to leave ... - said Princess Mary. - Call Dronushka.
Dron, who came, confirmed Dunyasha's words: the peasants came at the order of the princess.
“Yes, I never called them,” said the princess. You must have told them wrong. I only told you to give them the bread.
Drone sighed without answering.
“If you tell them to, they will leave,” he said.
“No, no, I will go to them,” said Princess Mary
Despite Dunyasha's and the nurse's dissuades, Princess Mary went out onto the porch. Dron, Dunyasha, the nurse, and Mikhail Ivanovich followed her. “They probably think that I am offering them bread so that they remain in their places, and I myself will leave, leaving them to the mercy of the French,” thought Princess Mary. - I will promise them a month in an apartment near Moscow; I am sure that Andre would have done even more in my place, ”she thought, approaching the crowd in the pasture near the barn at dusk.
The crowd, crowding together, began to stir, and hats were quickly taken off. Princess Mary, lowering her eyes and tangling her feet in her dress, went close to them. So many varied old and young eyes were fixed on her, and there were so many different faces, that Princess Mary did not see a single face and, feeling the need to suddenly talk to everyone, did not know what to do. But again, the realization that she was the representative of her father and brother gave her strength, and she boldly began her speech.
“I am very glad that you have come,” Princess Marya began, without raising her eyes and feeling how quickly and strongly her heart was beating. “Dronushka told me that the war ruined you. This is our common grief, and I will spare nothing to help you. I am going myself, because it is already dangerous here and the enemy is close ... because ... I give you everything, my friends, and I ask you to take everything, all our bread, so that you do not have a need. And if you were told that I am giving you bread so that you stay here, then this is not true. On the contrary, I ask you to leave with all your property to our suburban area, and there I take upon myself and promise you that you will not be in need. You will be given houses and bread. The princess stopped. Only sighs could be heard in the crowd.
“I am not doing this on my own,” the princess continued, “I am doing this in the name of my late father, who was a good master to you, and for my brother and his son.
She stopped again. No one interrupted her silence.
- Woe is our common, and we will divide everything in half. Everything that is mine is yours,” she said, looking around at the faces that stood before her.
All eyes looked at her with the same expression, the meaning of which she could not understand. Whether it was curiosity, devotion, gratitude, or fear and distrust, the expression on all faces was the same.
“Many are pleased with your grace, only we don’t have to take the master’s bread,” said a voice from behind.
- Yes, why? - said the princess.
No one answered, and Princess Mary, looking around the crowd, noticed that now all the eyes she met immediately dropped.
- Why don't you want to? she asked again.
Nobody answered.
Princess Marya felt heavy from this silence; she tried to catch someone's gaze.
- Why don't you speak? - the princess turned to the old old man, who, leaning on a stick, stood in front of her. Tell me if you think you need anything else. I'll do anything," she said, catching his eye. But he, as if angry at this, lowered his head completely and said:
- Why agree, we do not need bread.
- Well, should we quit everything? Do not agree. Disagree... There is no our consent. We pity you, but there is no our consent. Go on your own, alone…” was heard in the crowd from different sides. And again the same expression appeared on all the faces of this crowd, and now it was probably no longer an expression of curiosity and gratitude, but an expression of embittered determination.
“Yes, you didn’t understand, right,” said Princess Marya with a sad smile. Why don't you want to go? I promise to accommodate you, feed you. And here the enemy will ruin you ...
But her voice was drowned out by the voices of the crowd.
- There is no our consent, let them ruin! We do not take your bread, there is no our consent!
Princess Mary tried again to catch someone's gaze from the crowd, but not a single glance was directed at her; her eyes obviously avoided her. She felt strange and uncomfortable.
“Look, she taught me cleverly, follow her to the fortress!” Ruin the houses and into bondage and go. How! I'll give you bread! voices were heard in the crowd.
Princess Mary, lowering her head, left the circle and went into the house. Having repeated the order to Dron that there should be horses for departure tomorrow, she went to her room and was left alone with her thoughts.

For a long time that night Princess Marya sat at open window in her room, listening to the sounds of peasants talking from the village, but she did not think about them. She felt that no matter how much she thought about them, she could not understand them. She kept thinking about one thing - about her grief, which now, after the break made by worries about the present, has already become past for her. She could now remember, she could cry and she could pray. As the sun went down, the wind died down. The night was calm and cool. At twelve o'clock the voices began to subside, a rooster crowed, full moon, a fresh, white dew mist rose, and silence reigned over the village and over the house.
One after another, she imagined pictures of the close past - illness and the last moments of her father. And with sad joy she now dwelled on these images, driving away from herself with horror only one last idea of ​​​​his death, which - she felt - she was unable to contemplate even in her imagination at this quiet and mysterious hour of the night. And these pictures appeared to her with such clarity and in such detail that they seemed to her either reality, or the past, or the future.
Then she vividly imagined the moment when he had a stroke and he was dragged from the garden in the Bald Mountains by the arms and he muttered something in an impotent tongue, twitched his gray eyebrows and looked restlessly and timidly at her.
“He wanted to tell me even then what he told me on the day of his death,” she thought. “He always thought what he said to me.” And now she remembered with all the details that night in the Bald Mountains on the eve of the blow that happened to him, when Princess Mary, anticipating trouble, stayed with him against his will. She did not sleep and went downstairs on tiptoe at night and, going to the door to the flower room, where her father spent the night that night, she listened to his voice. He was saying something to Tikhon in an exhausted, tired voice. He seemed to want to talk. "Why didn't he call me? Why didn't he allow me to be here in Tikhon's place? thought then and now Princess Marya. - He will never tell anyone now all that was in his soul. This moment will never return for him and for me when he would say everything that he wanted to express, and I, and not Tikhon, would listen and understand him. Why didn't I come into the room then? she thought. “Perhaps he would have told me then what he said on the day of his death. Even then, in a conversation with Tikhon, he asked twice about me. He wanted to see me, and I was standing there, outside the door. He was sad, it was hard to talk with Tikhon, who did not understand him. I remember how he spoke to him about Liza, as if alive - he forgot that she was dead, and Tikhon reminded him that she was no longer there, and he shouted: "Fool." It was hard for him. I heard from behind the door how, groaning, he lay down on the bed and shouted loudly: “My God! Why didn’t I go up then? What would he do to me? What would I lose? Or maybe then he would have consoled himself, he would have said this word to me. And Princess Marya uttered aloud that affectionate word that he had spoken to her on the day of his death. “Dude she nka! - Princess Marya repeated this word and sobbed tears that relieved her soul. She saw his face in front of her now. And not the face she had known since she could remember, and which she had always seen from afar; and that face - timid and weak, which on the last day, bending down to his mouth in order to hear what he was saying, for the first time examined closely with all its wrinkles and details.
"Darling," she repeated.
What was he thinking when he said that word? What does he think now? - suddenly a question came to her, and in response to this she saw him in front of her with the expression on his face that he had in the coffin on his face tied with a white handkerchief. And the horror that seized her when she touched him and became convinced that it was not only not him, but something mysterious and repulsive, seized her even now. She wanted to think about something else, she wanted to pray, and there was nothing she could do. She gazed with large open eyes at the moonlight and the shadows, every second she expected to see his dead face, and she felt that the silence that stood over the house and in the house chained her.
- Dunyasha! she whispered. - Dunyasha! she cried in a wild voice and, breaking out of the silence, ran to the girls' room, towards the nanny and girls running towards her.

On August 17, Rostov and Ilyin, accompanied by Lavrushka and the escort hussar, who had just returned from captivity, went riding from their Yankovo ​​camp, fifteen miles from Bogucharov, to try a new horse bought by Ilyin and find out if there is hay in the villages.
Bogucharovo had been between the two enemy armies for the last three days, so that the Russian rearguard could just as easily enter there as the French avant-garde, and therefore Rostov, as a caring squadron commander, wanted to take advantage of the provisions that remained in Bogucharov before the French.
Rostov and Ilyin were in the most cheerful mood. On the way to Bogucharovo, to the princely estate with a manor, where they hoped to find a large household and pretty girls, they first asked Lavrushka about Napoleon and laughed at his stories, then they drove, trying Ilyin's horse.
Rostov did not know and did not think that this village to which he was going was the estate of that same Bolkonsky, who was his sister's fiancé.
Rostov and Ilyin for the last time released the horses for distillation in front of Bogucharov, and Rostov, having overtaken Ilyin, was the first to jump into the street of the village of Bogucharov.
“You took it ahead,” said Ilyin, flushed.
“Yes, everything is forward, and forward in the meadow, and here,” answered Rostov, stroking his soaring bottom with his hand.
“And I’m in French, Your Excellency,” Lavrushka said from behind, calling his draft horse French, “I would have overtaken, but I just didn’t want to shame.
They walked up to the barn, where a large crowd of peasants was standing.
Some peasants took off their hats, some, without taking off their hats, looked at the approachers. Two tall old peasants, with wrinkled faces and sparse beards, came out of the tavern and with smiles, swaying and singing some awkward song, approached the officers.
- Well done! - said, laughing, Rostov. - What, do you have hay?
“And the same ones…” said Ilyin.
- Weigh ... oo ... oooh ... barking demon ... demon ... - the men sang with happy smiles.
One peasant left the crowd and approached Rostov.
- Which one will you be? - he asked.
“French,” answered Ilyin, laughing. "That's Napoleon himself," he said, pointing to Lavrushka.
- So, the Russians will be? the man asked.
- How much of your power is there? asked another small man, approaching them.
“Many, many,” answered Rostov. - Yes, what are you gathered here for? he added. Holiday, huh?
“The old men have gathered, on a worldly matter,” answered the peasant, moving away from him.
At this time, two women and a man in a white hat appeared on the road from the manor house, walking towards the officers.
- In my pink, mind not beating! said Ilyin, noticing Dunyasha resolutely advancing towards him.
Ours will be! Lavrushka said with a wink.
- What, my beauty, do you need? - said Ilyin, smiling.
- The princess was ordered to find out what regiment you are and your names?
- This is Count Rostov, squadron commander, and I am your obedient servant.
- Be ... se ... e ... du ... shka! sang the drunk peasant, smiling happily and looking at Ilyin, who was talking to the girl. Following Dunyasha, Alpatych approached Rostov, taking off his hat from a distance.
“I dare to disturb, your honor,” he said with deference, but with relative disdain for the youth of this officer, and putting his hand in his bosom. “My lady, the daughter of General-in-Chief Prince Nikolai Andreevich Bolkonsky, who died this fifteenth day, being in difficulty because of the ignorance of these persons,” he pointed to the peasants, “asks you to come in ... if you don’t mind,” Alpatych said with a sad smile, “move off a few, otherwise it’s not so convenient when ... - Alpatych pointed to two men who were rushing around him from behind, like horseflies near a horse.
- Ah! .. Alpatych ... Huh? Yakov Alpatych!.. Important! sorry for Christ. Important! Eh? .. - the men said, smiling joyfully at him. Rostov looked at the drunken old men and smiled.
“Or maybe that’s a consolation to Your Excellency?” - said Yakov Alpatych with a sedate look, pointing at the old people with his hand not in his bosom.
“No, there is little consolation here,” said Rostov, and drove off. - What's the matter? - he asked.
“I dare to report to your excellency that the rude people here do not want to let the lady out of the estate and threaten to disown the horses, so that in the morning everything is packed and her excellency cannot leave.
- Can not be! cried Rostov.
“I have the honor to report to you the real truth,” Alpatych repeated.
Rostov got off the horse and, handing it over to the orderly, went with Alpatych to the house, asking him about the details of the case. Indeed, yesterday's offer of bread by the princess to the peasants, her explanation with Dron and with the gathering spoiled the matter so much that Dron finally handed over the keys, joined the peasants and did not appear at the request of Alpatych, and that in the morning, when the princess ordered to lay the mortgage in order to go, the peasants came out in a large crowd to the barn and sent to say that they would not let the princess out of the village, that there was an order not to be taken out, and they would unharness the horses. Alpatych went out to them, advising them, but they answered him (Karp spoke the most; Dron did not show up from the crowd) that the princess could not be released, that there was an order for that; but that let the princess remain, and they will serve her as before and obey her in everything.
At that moment, when Rostov and Ilyin galloped along the road, Princess Mary, despite the dissuades of Alpatych, the nanny and the girls, ordered to mortgage and wanted to go; but, seeing the galloping cavalrymen, they took them for the French, the coachmen fled, and the wailing of women rose up in the house.
- Father! native father! God has sent you, - tender voices said, while Rostov passed through the hall.
Princess Mary, lost and powerless, sat in the hall, while Rostov was brought in to her. She did not understand who he was, and why he was, and what would happen to her. Seeing his Russian face, and recognizing him as a man of her circle by his entrance and the first spoken words, she looked at him with her deep and radiant gaze and began to speak in a voice that broke and trembled with excitement. Rostov immediately imagined something romantic in this meeting. “Defenseless, heartbroken girl, alone, left to the mercy of rude, rebellious men! And what a strange fate pushed me here! thought Rostov, listening to her and looking at her. - And what meekness, nobility in her features and expression! he thought as he listened to her timid story.
When she started talking about how it all happened the day after her father's funeral, her voice trembled. She turned away and then, as if afraid that Rostov would not take her words for a desire to pity him, looked at him inquiringly and frightened. Rostov had tears in his eyes. Princess Mary noticed this and looked gratefully at Rostov with that radiant look of hers that made her forget the ugliness of her face.
“I can’t express, princess, how happy I am that I accidentally drove here and will be able to show you my readiness,” said Rostov, getting up. “If you please go, and I answer you with my honor that not a single person will dare to make trouble for you if you only allow me to escort you,” and, bowing respectfully, as they bow to the ladies of royal blood, he went to the door.
By the respectfulness of his tone, Rostov seemed to show that, despite the fact that he would consider his acquaintance with her to be happiness, he did not want to use the opportunity of her misfortune to get closer to her.
Princess Marya understood and appreciated this tone.
“I am very, very grateful to you,” the princess told him in French, “but I hope that it was all just a misunderstanding and that no one is to blame for that. The princess suddenly burst into tears. “Excuse me,” she said.
Rostov, frowning, bowed deeply once more and left the room.

- Well, honey? No, brother, my pink charm, and Dunyasha's name is ... - But, looking at Rostov's face, Ilyin fell silent. He saw that his hero and commander were in a completely different line of thought.
Rostov looked angrily at Ilyin and, without answering him, quickly walked towards the village.
- I'll show them, I'll ask them, the robbers! he said to himself.
Alpatych with a floating step, so as not to run, barely caught up with Rostov at a trot.
- What decision would you like to make? he said, catching up with him.
Rostov stopped and, clenching his fists, suddenly moved menacingly towards Alpatych.
– Decision? What's the solution? Old bastard! he shouted at him. - What were you watching? BUT? The men are rioting, and you can't handle it? You yourself are a traitor. I know you, I'll skin everyone ... - And, as if afraid to waste his ardor in vain, he left Alpatych and quickly went forward. Alpatych, suppressing the feeling of insult, kept up with Rostov with a floating step and continued to tell him his thoughts. He said that the peasants were stagnant, that at the present moment it was imprudent to fight them without having a military team, that it would not be better to send for a team first.
“I will give them a military command ... I will oppose them,” Nikolai said senselessly, choking on unreasonable animal malice and the need to vent this anger. Without realizing what he would do, unconsciously, with a quick, decisive step, he moved towards the crowd. And the closer he moved to her, the more Alpatych felt that his imprudent act could produce good results. The peasants of the crowd felt the same way, looking at his quick and firm gait and his determined, frowning face.
After the hussars entered the village and Rostov went to the princess, confusion and discord occurred in the crowd. Some peasants began to say that these newcomers were Russians and no matter how offended they were by not letting the young lady out. Drone was of the same opinion; but as soon as he expressed it, Karp and other peasants attacked the former headman.
- How many years have you eaten the world? Karp shouted at him. - You don't care! You will dig a little egg, take it away, what do you want, ruin our houses, or not?
- It is said that there should be order, no one should go from the houses, so as not to take out a blue gunpowder - that's it! shouted another.
“There was a queue for your son, and you must have felt sorry for your baldness,” the little old man suddenly spoke quickly, attacking Dron, “but he shaved my Vanka. Oh, let's die!
- Then we will die!
“I am not a refuser from the world,” said Dron.
- That’s not a refuser, he has grown a belly! ..
Two long men were talking. As soon as Rostov, accompanied by Ilyin, Lavrushka and Alpatych, approached the crowd, Karp, putting his fingers behind his sash, smiling slightly, stepped forward. The drone, on the contrary, went into the back rows, and the crowd moved closer.
- Hey! who is your elder here? - shouted Rostov, quickly approaching the crowd.
- Is that the elder? What do you want? .. – asked Karp. But before he had time to finish, his hat fell off him and his head jerked to one side from a strong blow.
- Hats off, traitors! Rostov's full-blooded voice shouted. - Where is the elder? he shouted in a furious voice.
“The headman, the headman is calling ... Dron Zakharych, you,” hurriedly submissive voices were heard somewhere, and hats began to be removed from their heads.
“We can’t rebel, we observe the rules,” said Karp, and at the same moment several voices from behind suddenly began to speak:
- As the old men murmured, there are a lot of you bosses ...
- Talk? .. Riot! .. Robbers! Traitors! Rostov yelled senselessly, in a voice not his own, grabbing Karp by Yurot. - Knit him, knit him! he shouted, although there was no one to knit him, except for Lavrushka and Alpatych.
Lavrushka, however, ran up to Karp and grabbed him by the arms from behind.
- Will you order ours from under the mountain to call? he shouted.
Alpatych turned to the peasants, calling two by name to knit Karp. The men obediently left the crowd and began to unbelt.
- Where is the elder? shouted Rostov.
Drone, with a frown and pale face, stepped out of the crowd.
- Are you an elder? Knit, Lavrushka! - shouted Rostov, as if this order could not meet obstacles. And indeed, two more peasants began to knit Dron, who, as if helping them, took off his kushan and gave it to them.
- And you all listen to me, - Rostov turned to the peasants: - Now the march to the houses, and so that I don’t hear your voice.
“Well, we didn’t make any offense. We are just being stupid. They’ve only done nonsense… I told you it was disorder,” voices were heard reproaching each other.
“So I told you,” Alpatych said, coming into his own. - It's not good, guys!
“Our stupidity, Yakov Alpatych,” voices answered, and the crowd immediately began to disperse and scatter around the village.
The bound two peasants were taken to the manor's yard. Two drunk men followed them.
- Oh, I'll look at you! - said one of them, referring to Karp.
“Is it possible to speak to gentlemen like that?” What did you think?
“Fool,” another confirmed, “really, fool!”
Two hours later the carts were in the courtyard of Bogucharov's house. The peasants were eagerly carrying out and stacking the master's things on the carts, and Dron, at the request of Princess Mary, released from the locker where he was locked up, standing in the yard, disposed of the peasants.
“Don’t put it down so badly,” said one of the peasants, a tall man with a round smiling face, taking the box from the maid’s hands. She's worth the money too. Why are you throwing it like that or half a rope - and it will rub. I don't like that. And to be honest, according to the law. That's how it is under the matting, but cover it with a curtain, that's important. Love!
“Look for books, books,” said another peasant, who was carrying out the library cabinets of Prince Andrei. - You do not cling! And it’s heavy, guys, the books are healthy!
- Yes, they wrote, they didn’t walk! - a tall chubby man said with a significant wink, pointing to the thick lexicons lying on top.

Rostov, not wanting to impose his acquaintance on the princess, did not go to her, but remained in the village, waiting for her to leave. Having waited for Princess Mary's carriages to leave the house, Rostov mounted on horseback and accompanied her on horseback to the path occupied by our troops, twelve miles from Bogucharov. In Jankovo, at the inn, he took leave of her respectfully, for the first time allowing himself to kiss her hand.
“You’re not ashamed,” blushing, he answered Princess Marya to the expression of gratitude for her salvation (as she called his act), “every guard would have done the same. If we only had to fight with the peasants, we would not let the enemy go so far, ”he said, ashamed of something and trying to change the conversation. “I am only happy to have had the opportunity to meet you. Farewell, princess, I wish you happiness and consolation and wish to meet you under happier conditions. If you don't want to make me blush, please don't thank me.
But the princess, if she did not thank him more with words, thanked him with the whole expression of her face, beaming with gratitude and tenderness. She couldn't believe him, that she had nothing to thank him for. On the contrary, for her it was undoubtedly that if he were not there, then she probably would have to die from both the rebels and the French; that he, in order to save her, exposed himself to the most obvious and terrible dangers; and even more undoubted was the fact that he was a man with a lofty and noble soul, who knew how to understand her position and grief. His kind and honest eyes, with tears coming out of them, while she herself, crying, spoke to him about her loss, did not go out of her imagination.
When she said goodbye to him and was left alone, Princess Mary suddenly felt tears in her eyes, and then, not for the first time, she asked herself a strange question: does she love him?
On the way further to Moscow, despite the fact that the situation of the princess was not joyful, Dunyasha, who was traveling with her in a carriage, noticed more than once that the princess, leaning out of the window of the carriage, smiled joyfully and sadly at something.
“Well, what if I did love him? thought Princess Mary.
No matter how ashamed she was to admit to herself that she was the first to love a man who, perhaps, would never love her, she consoled herself with the thought that no one would ever know this and that it would not be her fault if she didn’t talking about loving the one she loved for the first and last time.
Sometimes she remembered his views, his participation, his words, and it seemed to her that happiness was not impossible. And then Dunyasha noticed that she, smiling, was looking out the window of the carriage.
“And he should have come to Bogucharovo, and at that very moment! thought Princess Mary. - And it was necessary for his sister to refuse Prince Andrei! - And in all this, Princess Mary saw the will of providence.
The impression made on Rostov by Princess Marya was very pleasant. When he thought about her, he felt merry, and when his comrades, having learned about the adventure that had happened with him in Bogucharov, joked to him that he, having gone for hay, had picked up one of the richest brides in Russia, Rostov became angry. He was angry precisely because the idea of ​​​​marrying the meek Princess Mary, pleasant to him, with a huge fortune, more than once, against his will, came to his mind. For himself, Nikolai could not wish for a better wife than Princess Mary: marrying her would make the Countess, his mother, happy, and improve his father’s affairs; and even—Nikolai felt it—would have made Princess Marya happy. But Sonya? And this word? And this made Rostov angry when they joked about Princess Bolkonskaya.

Having taken command of the armies, Kutuzov remembered Prince Andrei and sent him an order to arrive at the main apartment.
Prince Andrei arrived in Tsarevo Zaimishche on the same day and at the same time of the day when Kutuzov made the first review of the troops. Prince Andrei stopped in the village near the priest's house, at which the commander-in-chief's carriage was stationed, and sat down on a bench at the gate, waiting for the Serene Highness, as everyone now called Kutuzov. On the field outside the village, one could hear the sounds of regimental music, then the roar of a huge number of voices shouting “Hurrah! to the new commander-in-chief. Immediately at the gate, about ten paces from Prince Andrei, taking advantage of the absence of the prince and the fine weather, stood two batmen, a courier and a butler. Blackish, overgrown with mustaches and sideburns, a little hussar lieutenant colonel rode up to the gate and, looking at Prince Andrei, asked: is the brightest here and will he be soon?
Prince Andrei said that he did not belong to the headquarters of his Serene Highness and was also a visitor. The hussar lieutenant colonel turned to the well-dressed batman, and the batman of the commander-in-chief said to him with that special contempt with which the batmen of the commanders-in-chief speak to the officers:
- What, brightest? It must be now. You that?
The hussar lieutenant colonel grinned into his mustache at the orderly, got off the horse, gave it to the messenger and went up to Bolkonsky, bowing slightly to him. Bolkonsky stood aside on the bench. The hussar lieutenant-colonel sat down beside him.
Are you also waiting for the commander-in-chief? said the hussar lieutenant colonel. - Govog "yat, accessible to everyone, thank God. Otherwise, trouble with sausages! Nedag" om Yeg "molov in the Germans pg" settled down. Tepeg "maybe and g" Russian talk "it will be possible. Otherwise, Cheg" does not know what they were doing. Everyone retreated, everyone retreated. Did you do the hike? - he asked.
- I had the pleasure, - answered Prince Andrei, - not only to participate in the retreat, but also to lose in this retreat everything that he had dear, not to mention the estates and home ... father, who died of grief. I am from Smolensk.
- And? .. Are you Prince Bolkonsky? It’s a hell of a place to meet: Lieutenant Colonel Denisov, better known as Vaska, said Denisov, shaking Prince Andrei’s hand and peering into Bolkonsky’s face with especially kind attention. Yes, I heard, ”he said sympathetically and, after a pause, continued : - Here is the Scythian war. This is all hog "osho, but not for those who puff with their sides. Are you Prince Andg "hey Bolkonsky?" He shook his head. "Very hell, prince, very hell to meet you," he added again with a sad smile, shaking his hand.
Prince Andrei knew Denisov from Natasha's stories about her first fiancé. This recollection both sweetly and painfully carried him now to those painful sensations of which he recent times I had not thought about it for a long time, but which were still in his soul. Recently, there have been so many other and such serious impressions as leaving Smolensk, his arrival in the Bald Mountains, recently known about the death of his father - so many sensations were experienced by him that these memories had not come to him for a long time and, when they did, had no effect on him. him with the same strength. And for Denisov, the series of memories that Bolkonsky’s name evoked was the distant, poetic past, when, after dinner and Natasha’s singing, without knowing how, he proposed to a fifteen-year-old girl. He smiled at the memories of that time and his love for Natasha, and immediately turned to what passionately and exclusively now occupied him. This was the campaign plan he had come up with while serving in the outposts during the retreat. He presented this plan to Barclay de Tolly and now intended to present it to Kutuzov. The plan was based on the fact that the French line of operations was too long and that instead of, or at the same time, acting from the front, blocking the way for the French, it was necessary to act on their messages. He began to explain his plan to Prince Andrei.
“They can't hold this whole line. This is impossible, I answer that pg "og" vu them; give me five hundred people, I g "azog" vu them, this is veg "but! One system is pag" tizanskaya.
Denisov stood up and, making gestures, outlined his plan to Bolkonsky. In the middle of his exposition, the cries of the army, more incoherent, more widespread and merging with music and songs, were heard at the place of the review. There was a clatter and screams in the village.
“He’s on his way,” shouted the Cossack, who was standing at the gate, “he’s on his way!” Bolkonsky and Denisov moved up to the gate, at which a handful of soldiers (guard of honor) stood, and saw Kutuzov advancing along Kutuzov Street, riding a short bay horse. A huge retinue of generals rode behind him. Barclay rode almost alongside; a crowd of officers ran after them and around them and shouted "Hurrah!".
Adjutants galloped ahead of him into the yard. Kutuzov, impatiently pushing his horse, which was ambling under his weight, and constantly nodding his head, put his hand to the misfortune of the cavalry guard (with a red band and without a visor) cap that was on him. Having approached the guard of honor of the young grenadiers, mostly cavaliers, who saluted him, for a minute he silently, carefully looked at them with a commanding stubborn look and turned to the crowd of generals and officers standing around him. His face suddenly took on a subtle expression; he shrugged his shoulders with a gesture of bewilderment.
- And with such good fellows, everything retreats and retreats! - he said. “Well, goodbye, general,” he added, and touched the horse through the gate past Prince Andrei and Denisov.
- Hooray! Hurrah! Hurrah! shouted from behind him.
Since Prince Andrei had not seen him, Kutuzov had grown fat, flabby and swollen with fat. But the familiar white eye, and the wound, and the expression of weariness in his face and figure were the same. He was dressed in a uniform frock coat (a whip on a thin belt hung over his shoulder) and in a white cavalry guard cap. He, heavily blurring and swaying, sat on his cheerful horse.
“Fu… fu… fu…” he whistled almost audibly as he drove into the yard. His face expressed the joy of reassuring a man who intends to rest after the representation. He took his left leg out of the stirrup, falling down with his whole body and grimacing from the effort, with difficulty brought it onto the saddle, leaned on his knee, grunted and went down on his hands to the Cossacks and adjutants who supported him.
He recovered, looked around with his narrowed eyes, and looking at Prince Andrei, apparently not recognizing him, walked with his diving gait to the porch.
“Fu… fu… fu,” he whistled and looked back at Prince Andrei. The impression of Prince Andrei's face only after a few seconds (as is often the case with old people) was associated with the memory of his personality.
“Ah, hello, prince, hello, my dear, let’s go ...” he said wearily, looking around, and heavily entered the porch, creaking under his weight. He unbuttoned and sat down on a bench on the porch.
- Well, what about the father?
“Yesterday I received news of his death,” said Prince Andrei shortly.
Kutuzov looked at Prince Andrei with frightened open eyes, then took off his cap and crossed himself: “Kingdom to him in heaven! May the will of God be over all of us! He sighed heavily, with all his chest, and was silent. “I loved and respected him and I sympathize with you with all my heart.” He embraced Prince Andrei, pressed him to his fat chest and did not let go for a long time. When he released him, Prince Andrei saw that Kutuzov's swollen lips were trembling and there were tears in his eyes. He sighed and grabbed the bench with both hands to stand up.
“Come, come to me, we’ll talk,” he said; but at this time Denisov, as little shy before his superiors as before the enemy, despite the fact that the adjutants at the porch stopped him in an angry whisper, boldly, banging his spurs on the steps, entered the porch. Kutuzov, leaving his hands resting on the bench, looked displeasedly at Denisov. Denisov, having identified himself, announced that he had to inform his lordship of a matter of great importance for the good of the fatherland. Kutuzov began to look at Denisov with a tired look and with an annoyed gesture, taking his hands and folding them on his stomach, he repeated: “For the good of the fatherland? Well, what is it? Speak." Denisov blushed like a girl (it was so strange to see the color on that mustachioed, old and drunken face), and boldly began to outline his plan for cutting the enemy's line of operations between Smolensk and Vyazma. Denisov lived in these parts and knew the area well. His plan seemed undoubtedly good, especially in terms of the force of conviction that was in his words. Kutuzov looked at his feet and occasionally looked back at the yard of a neighboring hut, as if he was expecting something unpleasant from there. Indeed, during Denisov's speech, a general appeared from the hut he was looking at with a briefcase under his arm.

All empires tend to fall apart at some point. The great Mongol Empire, created by Genghis Khan, collapsed. After some time, the Golden Horde followed its example - the most powerful state, which for a long time terrified its neighbors.

Genghis Khan divided the lands he conquered between his sons. The ulus of Jochi, the eldest son of the great khan, eventually turned into the Golden Horde.

The heyday of this state fell on the first half of the XIV century. Forgive me for the tautology, but this was the "golden age" of the Golden Horde. Khan Uzbek then ruled, who finally introduced Islam as the state religion. Those who disagreed were executed. The Uzbek generally rules harshly. Hence the flourish. Under soft rulers there are no flourishes.

"The Great Jam"

Under the son of Uzbek - Dzhanibek - everything was fine too. But the son of Dzhanibek - Berdibek - turned out to be a bad person. His father fell ill, and Berdibek was going to rule on his own. But dad suddenly began to recover. Then Berdibek ordered to finish him off.

You can't treat your parents like that. God, as they say, punishes. And indeed - punished. In the Golden Horde, a "great jam" began, that is, a great turmoil. In 1359 Kulpa killed Beribek. And Navrus (Nauruz) killed Kulpa and his sons. But Khizr killed Navrus along with his entire family. And Khizr's son killed the pope, but only lasted five weeks in power.

In general, over 20 years, 25 khans with a wide variety of names have changed in the Golden Horde. Not every state will withstand such shocks. The Golden Horde somehow survived. Although by the end of the XIV century, in fact, it was divided into two parts.

The lands to the east of the Volga were taken under control by the Urus Khan. And in the western part of the country, Temnik Mamai advanced to the leading positions. He was not Genghisides, so he ruled through dummy khans, whose only merit was genealogy - they were descendants of Genghis Khan.

However, a new leader appeared in the east. Determined and talented. His name was Tokhtamysh. Behind him was a serious force - Timur, aka Tamerlane, the new great conqueror. Tokhtamysh conquered the eastern part of the Golden Horde from the sons of Urus Khan, and then captured the country's capital, Saray.

A question arose before Mamai. In the east, a serious rival is Tokhtamysh. And in the west, the Moscow principality got out of hand, taking advantage of the unrest in the Golden Horde. And Mamai thought: to defeat Tokhtamysh first or Moscow first? Decided to get rid of Moscow first. Failed. September 8, 1380 on the Kulikovo field, Mamai was defeated by the army of Dmitry Donskoy.

Knockdown from Timur

After the Battle of Kulikovo, Mamai somehow immediately disappears from Russian history. But he did not disappear from the Mongolian. He gave another battle to Tokhtamysh. But he lost again. After that, he fled to the Crimea, where he was killed and now he has finally left the pages of history. And Tokhtamysh united the western and eastern parts of the Golden Horde. And he ruled over a vast territory - from the mouth of the Syr Darya to the mouth of the Dniester.

The Battle of Kulikovo is an important event in Russian history. But for Tokhtamysh, it was an event of no importance at all. Nothing special. The Russians defeated the usurper and illegal ruler Mamai. Well done. Now they must pay respect to the rightful ruler. That is, to him, Tokhtamysh.

The Russians balked. Then Tokhtamysh captured and burned Moscow in 1382. “In an instant, all her beauty perished, and glory turned into nothing,” wrote a Russian chronicler.

Tokhtamysh is at the zenith of fame. At this time, the Genghisid rulers were expelled from China, Persia, and Central Asia. And he is great. He is the true heir of Genghis Khan. But pride is a great sin. And Tokhtamysh became proud. And he quarreled with his patron - Timur. Even began to fight with him.

The wars with Timur ended in tears both for Tokhtamysh himself and for his state. Timur not only won, he destroyed economic basis Golden Horde. Previously, caravan routes from China and India went through the Golden Horde: through Urgench to Novy Sarai and Astrakhan, then to the Black Sea, and from there oriental goods were delivered to Europe. Timur destroyed all these cities. And now trade with China and India has gone south - through Persia and Syria. That is, not through the Golden Horde, but through the empire of Timur.

In addition, cities are centers of crafts and culture. After the wars with Timur, both the crafts and the culture of the Golden Horde fell into decay. They survived only in the Crimea and in the basin of the Middle Volga. It is these territories that will become the main centers of the Golden Horde separatism. It is here that the independent Crimean and Kazan Khanates will arise.

With all these actions, Timur dealt such a blow to the Golden Horde, from which she could no longer recover. Simply put, Timur knocked down the Golden Horde. Not far off was a knockout.

It turns out that the Turkic-Mongolian Golden Horde was destroyed by the Turkicized Mongol Timur. And this rendered a great service to Russia. It just so happened that the Muslim Timur, unwittingly, rendered great services to the Orthodox states. By defeating the Turkish sultan Bayezid, he delayed the fall of Byzantium. And by defeating Tokhtamysh, he ultimately helped Russia throw off the Tatar-Mongol yoke. History loves jokes.

Theirs against theirs

However, before the overthrow of the yoke was still far away. Edigey rose in the Golden Horde. It was the swan song of the Golden Horde. For the last time, this state was able to declare itself. Edigei knew how to fight and loved. He captured Khorezm and stood near Moscow. So the Russian princes had to strain again and for a while stop boasting of the victory on the Kulikovo field.

Edigei had the same problem as Mamai. He was not a Chingizid. And so he could not become a khan. So he ruled according to the old scheme - through Chingizid puppets. Everything was going well until one of these puppets suddenly rebelled and overthrew Edigei. After that, the Golden Horde as a single state actually ceases to exist. On the territory of the former ulus of Jochi, independent khanates arise - Uzbek, Kazakh, Siberian, Astrakhan, Kasimov, Crimean, Kazan.

The process of disintegration was gradual but steady. In 1419, Ulu-Muhammed became khan. He was still strong. When the grandson and son of Dmitry Donskoy, Vasily Vasilyevich and Yuri Dmitrievich, quarreled, they went to solve their problems precisely to Ulu-Muhammed, as to a representative of the highest authority. And then Vasily Vasilyevich, who went down in history as Vasily the Dark, will be captured by Ulu-Mohammed. And he will be released, but for a huge ransom.

But Ulu-Muhammed was pressed by Kichi-Muhammed. Then Ulu-Mohammed captured Kazan and founded the Kazan Khanate. Which will exist until Ivan the Terrible liquidates it. Kichi-Mohammed was dissatisfied in the Crimea. And Hadji Giray lived in Lithuania. With the help of the Lithuanians, he expelled Kichi-Mukhammed from the Crimea, founded an independent Crimean Khanate and the Girey dynasty. Later, Crimea would become a vassal of Turkey, and the Gireys would rule Crimea until the very time of Catherine II.

Standing on the Ugra

From 1432 to 1459, Kichi-Mohammed was the Khan of the Great Horde. This is what is left of the Golden Horde. Akhmat, the son of Kichi-Mohammed, turned out to be the last khan who tried to restore the former power of the Horde. He even succeeded in some respects. But his activity caused dissatisfaction with the neighbors - the Crimea, the Astrakhan Khanate, the Nogai Horde. And yet Akhmat was ruined by the struggle with Russia.

Moscow princes were not fools. They saw that the Horde, so to speak, was falling into insignificance. And they stopped going to the khans for a label for a great reign. And Ivan III became quite insolent and stopped paying "exit". That is a tribute. The khan's ambassadors who came for him were sent to hell. Moreover, he made an alliance against Akhmat with the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray. The vassal makes an alliance against the lord. Further, as they say, there is nowhere to go. Akhmat could not stand it and went to war against Russia. To close the issue for another hundred or two years.

The famous standing on the Ugra River in 1480 began. The Russians were afraid of the Tatars and did not attack. Akhmat did not attack either. He was waiting for an ally - the Lithuanian prince and the Polish king Casimir. But the ally did not come. Because the Crimean Khan, an ally of the Russians, invaded the possessions of Casimir. In short, Ivan III overthrew the Tatar yoke with the help of the same Tatars, but Crimean ones. Which, by the way, Russia will pay tribute for many years. But no longer as a vassal, but simply for the fact that they did not go on raids on southern borders powers.

Akhmat, as a result, did not get involved in the battle on the Ugra. He stood and left. Disbanded the army and sat in his tent. Suddenly he was attacked by Siberian and Nogai Tatars. And they killed. It is quite possible that they were persuaded by the sovereign of all Russia Ivan III. At least it was in his spirit.

And in 1502 the Crimean Khan finally liquidated the Great Horde. This is where the history of the Golden Horde ends. A state that existed for two and a half centuries, experienced ups and downs and died, because any empires die sooner or later.

Gleb STASHKOV

How much is the exit?

How much did the Russian principalities pay the Golden Horde?

The amount of tribute was never fixed - it depended on the population and its prosperity. The Horde officials (and then the princes themselves, on their orders) kept a fairly strict and careful record, assigning the amount of "outputs" in accordance with it. For example, in the XIV century, under Ivan Kalita, tribute was collected at the rate of one ruble from two sokhs (that is, peasant farms). Accordingly, the "Moscow exit" at that time was 5-7 thousand rubles in silver, and the "Novgorod" - 1.5 thousand rubles.

Another thing is that collections from Russia were not limited to just one “exit” (aka “tsar's tribute”). In general, historians have established about 14 types of various "horde hardships". Among them: trade fees (“myt”, “tamga”), transport duties (“pits”, “carts”), maintenance of the khan’s ambassadors (“food”), various “gifts” and “honors” to the khan, his relatives and close associates . Periodically collected one-time "requests" for military and other needs.

harsh school

What was actually the Mongol-Tatar yoke for Russia? Years go by, and scientists still cannot develop a single point of view on this issue.

Some believe that it was a real disaster, while others point out that there is nothing special in the relationship between the Russian princes and the Horde khans. Ordinary vassals, ordinary seniors. Everything is like everywhere else. Just Mongols. Most of us from school are more accustomed to the point of view of Academician Boris Rybakov, who wrote as follows: “Rus was thrown back several centuries, and in those centuries when the guild industry of the West was moving to the era of primitive accumulation, the Russian handicraft industry had to go through part of that for the second time. historical path that was done to Batu”.

According to some estimates, conquering Russia, the Mongols exterminated about a third of the entire population. That is, out of 6-8 million people, 2-2.5 million were killed. There are testimonies of European travelers who, passing through the southern territories (which Batu's campaign hit hardest), wrote that this is a dead desert and a country like Russia no longer exists.

However, when the conquest was over, coexistence began. And it was, paradoxically, in some ways even useful for the Russian principalities, mired in civil strife. By the way, these civil strife were very beneficial for the Mongols, and they in every possible way warmed them up throughout the yoke. Setting the princes against each other, arranging raids on too independent "for educational purposes" and so on. But in the meantime, the Russians also learned a lot from them. How to manage a vast territory, how to organize the central government, how to collect and account for taxes, in the end. After the fall of the Golden Horde and the acquisition of the long-awaited independence, all this knowledge was very useful in the creation of the Muscovite state.

The great Russian historian Vasily Klyuchevsky said the following: “The Mongol yoke in extreme distress for the Russian people was a harsh school in which Moscow statehood and Russian autocracy were forged: a school in which the Russian nation realized itself as such and acquired character traits that facilitated its subsequent struggle for Existence".

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The phenomenon of the Golden Horde still causes serious controversy among historians: some consider it a powerful medieval state, according to others it was part of the Russian lands, and for others it did not exist at all.

Why Golden Horde?

In Russian sources, the term "Golden Horde" appears only in 1556 in the "Kazan History", although this phrase is found among the Turkic peoples much earlier.

However, the historian G.V. Vernadsky argues that in the Russian chronicles the term "Golden Horde" originally referred to the tent of Khan Guyuk. The Arab traveler Ibn Battuta wrote about the same, noting that the tents of the Horde khans were covered with plates of gilded silver.
But there is another version, according to which the term "golden" is synonymous with the words "central" or "middle". It was this position that the Golden Horde occupied after the collapse of the Mongolian state.

As for the word "horde", in Persian sources it meant a mobile camp or headquarters, later it was used in relation to the whole state. AT Ancient Russia a horde was usually called an army.

Borders

The Golden Horde is a fragment of the once powerful empire of Genghis Khan. By 1224, the Great Khan divided his vast possessions between his sons: one of the largest uluses with a center in the Lower Volga region went to his eldest son, Jochi.

The borders of the Juchi ulus, later the Golden Horde, were finally formed after the Western campaign (1236-1242), in which his son Batu took part (according to Russian sources, Batu). In the east, the Golden Horde included the Aral Lake, in the West - the Crimean Peninsula, in the south it neighbored Iran, and in the north it ran into the Ural Mountains.

Device

The judgment of the Mongols, solely as nomads and pastoralists, should probably become a thing of the past. The vast territories of the Golden Horde required reasonable management. After the final separation from Karakorum, the center of the Mongol Empire, the Golden Horde is divided into two wings - western and eastern, and each has its own capital - in the first Saray, in the second Horde-Bazaar. In total, according to archaeologists, the number of cities in the Golden Horde reached 150!

After 1254, the political and economic center of the state completely transferred to Sarai (located near modern Astrakhan), whose population at its peak reached 75 thousand people - by medieval standards, a rather large city. The minting of coins is being established here, pottery, jewelry, glass-blowing craft, as well as smelting and metal processing are developing. Sewerage and water supply were carried out in the city.

Sarai was a multinational city - Mongols, Russians, Tatars, Alans, Bulgars, Byzantines and other peoples peacefully coexisted here. The Horde, being an Islamic state, tolerated other religions. In 1261, the diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church and later the Catholic bishopric.

The cities of the Golden Horde are gradually turning into major centers of caravan trade. Here you can find everything - from silk and spices, to weapons and precious stones. The state is also actively developing its trade zone: caravan routes from Horde cities lead both to Europe and Russia, as well as to India and China.

Horde and Russia

In Russian historiography, for a long time, the main concept characterizing the relationship between Russia and the Golden Horde was the “yoke”. We were painted terrible pictures of the Mongol colonization of Russian lands, when wild hordes of nomads destroyed everyone and everything in their path, and the survivors were turned into slavery.

However, in the Russian chronicles the term "yoke" was not. It first appears in the works of the Polish historian Jan Długosz in the second half of the 15th century. Moreover, the Russian princes and Mongol khans, according to researchers, preferred to negotiate rather than devastate the lands.

L. N. Gumilyov, by the way, considered the relationship between Russia and the Horde an advantageous military-political alliance, and N. M. Karamzin noted the most important role of the Horde in the rise of the Moscow principality.

It is known that Alexander Nevsky, having enlisted the support of the Mongols and insured his rear, was able to expel the Swedes and Germans from northwestern Russia. And in 1269, when the crusaders besieged the walls of Novgorod, the Mongol detachment helped the Russians repulse their attack. The Horde sided with Nevsky in his conflict with the Russian nobility, and he, in turn, helped her resolve inter-dynastic disputes.
Of course, a significant part of the Russian lands was conquered by the Mongols and subjected to tribute, but the scale of the devastation is probably greatly exaggerated.

The princes, who wanted to cooperate, received the so-called "labels" from the khans, becoming, in fact, the governors of the Horde. The burden of duty for the lands controlled by the princes was significantly reduced. No matter how humiliating vassalage was, it still retained the autonomy of the Russian principalities and prevented bloody wars.

The Church was completely freed by the Horde from paying tribute. The first label was given to the clergy - Metropolitan Kirill Khan Mengu-Temir. History has preserved the words of the khan for us: “We favored the priests and blacks and all the poor people, but with a right heart they pray for us to God, and for our tribe without sorrow, bless us, but do not curse us.” The label ensured freedom of religion and inviolability of church property.

G. V. Nosovsky and A. T. Fomenko in the "New Chronology" put forward a very bold hypothesis: Russia and the Horde are one and the same state. They easily turn Batu into Yaroslav the Wise, Tokhtamysh into Dmitry Donskoy, and transfer the capital of the Horde, Saray, to Veliky Novgorod. However, the official history of this version is more than categorical.

Wars

Without a doubt, the Mongols were best at fighting. True, they took for the most part not by skill, but by number. The conquered peoples - Polovtsy, Tatars, Nogais, Bulgars, Chinese and even Russians helped the armies of Genghis Khan and his descendants to conquer the space from the Sea of ​​Japan to the Danube. The Golden Horde was not able to keep the empire within its former limits, but you cannot deny it militancy. The maneuverable cavalry, numbering hundreds of thousands of horsemen, forced many to capitulate.

For the time being, it was possible to maintain a delicate balance in relations between Russia and the Horde. But when the appetites of the temnik Mamai were in earnest, the contradictions between the parties resulted in the legendary battle on the Kulikovo field (1380). Its result was the defeat of the Mongol army and the weakening of the Horde. This event completes the period of the "Great Jail", when the Golden Horde was in a fever from civil strife and dynastic troubles.
The turmoil stopped and power was strengthened with the accession to the throne of Tokhtamysh. In 1382, he again goes to Moscow and resumes the payment of tribute. However, the exhausting wars with the more combat-ready army of Tamerlane, in the end, undermined the former power of the Horde and for a long time discouraged the desire to make aggressive campaigns.

In the next century, the Golden Horde gradually began to "crumble" into parts. So, one after another, the Siberian, Uzbek, Astrakhan, Crimean, Kazan Khanates and the Nogai Horde appeared within its borders. The weakening attempts of the Golden Horde to carry out punitive actions were stopped by Ivan III. The famous "Standing on the Ugra" (1480) did not develop into a large-scale battle, but finally broke the last Horde Khan Akhmat. Since that time, the Golden Horde formally ceased to exist.