Structure and diseases of the limbs of horses. We study the anatomy of a horse from A to Z. What does a horse's chest consist of?

This time our conversation will concern the horse. Not even the whole horse at once, but only its hind leg. Back for now.

So, wash your hands and go to the table!

Before we get to the muscle relief, we should understand for ourselves what and in what places these muscles are attached. And they are attached to the bones, therefore the first part of our program will focus on the arrangement of the bones of the hind limb.

I will try to give only the minimum necessary information and try not to complicate it too much. If anyone does not understand any things, terms or curse words, please do not hesitate to ask. I also ask you to intervene if you think that the presentation is too unclear, or, conversely, too abbreviated.

In addition, I don’t expect everyone to join me in making the bones of a horse. This is, of course, useful, but not at all necessary. That is, if someone comes up with the idea of ​​​​making a kind of anatomical manual for himself so that he always has it at hand, he will have the greatest benefit from this activity. Anyone who carefully understands all the material will hopefully also gain a sufficient understanding of the topic of our lesson.

And one last thing. What I will now demonstrate is not a miniature sculpture and also cannot really be called an anatomical preparation. This is a rather simplified diagram designed to give an idea of ​​​​the structure of the hind limb. Therefore, I ask you not to pay too much attention to its artistic merits or demerits.

So, let's take a quick look at the horse's free hind limb.

A pile of bones... When looking at the structure of the skeleton, the method of comparison or comparative anatomy will help us. With whom to compare? Yes, of course - with a person, since we all know human anatomy quite well, and we always have a person at hand. So the essence of this chatter is that the bone structure of all vertebrates has a lot in common. That is, having studied the skeleton of a person, and then a horse, it will be very easy for us to understand how a hippopotamus, hare or frog works.

Well, let's get to the point, my friends!

1. Femur (Femur, Femor)

2. Tibia (Tibia)

3. Tarsus bones

4. Bones of the metatarsus or simply metatarsus (Metatarsus)

5. Fetlock

6. Coronoid bone

7. Hoof-shaped

What is missing in this diagram is only the bone of the patella (Patella) of the pelvis and the hoof itself.

And immediately, for comparison, let's look at the lower limb. What we see: yes, in fact, all the same parts - the femur, tibia, tarsus, metatarsus, phalanges.

The shape and size, I agree, are different. And the horse has only one finger, one might say. And she runs on her nails. Yes, yes, an animal born to run runs on the nail of a single finger! And how he runs!

Now let's look at the femur:

Left femur (from left to right) from the lateral side, from the superolateral side, from the back. Second row: on the medial side, in front.

The numbers indicate: 1 - head of the hip joint (caput femoris, head of femor) 2 - greater trochanter (trochanter major) 3 - lateral condyle (condylus lateralis, lateral condyle) 4 - external trochanter (external trochanter) 5 - lesser trochanter (trochanter minor ) 6- medial condyle (condylus medialis, medial condyle)

And immediately for comparison - the human femur:

So you see that despite the difference in size, shape, thickness, the bone has exactly the same basic elements (with the exception of the external trochanter, which we do not see on the human femur). Also pay attention to the posterior-downward bend of the condyles and where the articular surfaces are located. In humans we also see such a bend, but it is much less pronounced.

Counter question: why do we need all this and is it necessary?

What are all these bad words in Latin for?

The answer is: if we are going to study muscle structure, then we need to know exactly where which muscles are attached and how they go. And muscles are attached to bones in strictly defined places. And these places have their own names for the convenience of the user. Therefore - you understand...

And secondly - having grasped another idea of ​​​​this lesson - you can easily recognize the femur of many other animals

We go down the leg.

Tibia and tarsus

Three views (from left to right) anterior, lateral and medial.

The numbers indicate: 1 - tibia (Tibia), 2 - tibial tuberosity, 3 - lateral malleolus, 4 - fibula, 5 - calcaneus 6, 7 , 8 - tarsal bones (it doesn’t matter, in this case, that they are called talus, cubic, navicular, etc.) 9 - medial malleolus 10 - tarsal or hock joint, in humans it would be called the ankle

Everything is very similar to how it is in humans, even the lateral malleolus is located below the medial malleolus. The only significant difference is that the fibula is reduced. Why? But because in a person the presence of two bones in the lower leg allows the foot to turn outward or inward. In a horse, on the contrary, the leg must stand clearly fixed, carrying such a mass and at such a speed, therefore any unnecessary liberties in the joints are not allowed.

Again, pay attention to where the axis of rotation passes in the racing joint and let me remind you that the next, more distal joint, between the bones of the tarsus and metatarsal bone, is motionless. That is, almost like a person’s.

The very main and only bone that carries the entire mass of the horse is what we humans have as the third finger. Make a fist with your hand. Now bend your middle finger... That's it!

And the horse gallops on it, by the way.

Let's look at the picture:

1 metatarsal bone, also known as the 3rd metatarsal bone (3-rd metatarsal bone or Cannon Bone) 2- fetlock bone, also known as the proximal or first phalanx (proximal phalanx) 3- coronoid bone, also known as the second phalanx (medial phalanx) 4 - distal phalanx

In the posterior view we see two more bony ridges on the posterolateral surfaces of the metatarsal (8). These are slate bones, how to say - the remains of other bones of the metatarsus - the second and fourth fingers

And number nine denotes the sesamoid bone. Actually, there are two of them there, standing like hemispheres, but for simplicity’s sake I didn’t bother. I won't even tell you where you can find another pair of sesame bones. We don't need it.

Joints - 5 - fetlock, 6 - coronoid, 7 - I don’t know what it’s called

This time the konik rises from... that is, it appears before us in the form of the entire skeleton of the lower limb along with its belt. And the belt is, naturally, the pelvis. I have photos of the construction of the basin, but I probably won’t post them - we don’t need too much unnecessary information. I will say and repeat about the pelvis that in the philosophical sense of the word it also resembles a human pelvis. I re-read what I wrote not so long ago: “The topic of our lesson today will be extremely complex: we will sculpt a basin. At first glance, the basin looks like a butterfly. What’s so complicated about that? I’ll answer: the basin really looks like a butterfly, but not a simple one, but one that who at first drank a bitter tincture of motherwort for twenty days instead of sweet nectar. And then, drunk, a horse stepped on her..." - all this was written about the human pelvis. I won’t write anything about horses. Just see for yourself.

There are only comments to the pictures: L - lumbar spine (not the whole, of course), S - sacral spine (like in a person, the sacrum consists of 5 fused vertebrae. C1-16 - sixteen caudal vertebrae. The doctor, when working on the tail, exceeded the plan and equipped horse 17th.

I started by filling the pelvic cavity. In reality, there is a special ligament in this form; it does not interest us, since to demonstrate muscles we will not study all the muscles in a row, but only those that form the relief. Moreover, I have simplified the presentation as much as possible.

Then I start with a muscle called the quadriceps femori. The quadriceps, strictly speaking, is not one quadriceps muscle, but a group of four muscles. They, each attached in its place, envelop the thigh on three sides: medial, superior and lateral. A person, if you remember, also has a quadriceps. And here we come to the first discovery: the names of the muscles of humans and horses are almost exactly the same, and secondly, the attachment points of the muscles of the same name will be to a certain extent similar. But the volumes of these muscles, that is, what interests us most in sculpture, will be very different. The human quadriceps is a powerful muscle that forms the shape of the thigh. And in a horse, she slightly rounds the outline of the femur so that excess does not protrude. And vice versa: those muscles that we sometimes mentioned in passing in humans simply because “they are there,” but they are too small to sculpt, in a horse they acquire powerful volumes and form a relief.

Speaking about the quadriceps, it is worth looking ahead to say that subsequently it will be covered with other layers of muscles and, at best, we will be able to detect it by looking at the superomedial surface of the thigh. So maybe, given its small volume and general hiddenness, maybe this muscle can be completely neglected. But it is necessary to remember about it, so it is worth mentioning in this lesson.

Before we continue, let me correct one inaccuracy.

It would be more correct to call the muscles that were just discussed not the quadriceps, but the quadratus femoris. It consists of: M.rectus femoris (rectus femoris), M.vastus medialis (wide medial), M.vastus lateralis (wide lateral) and M.vastus intermedius (wide intermediate).

The next part of our program is making the molumembranosus muscle M.Semimembranosus. It starts from the last sacral vertebrae, the first caudal one and passes medially to the ischial tuberosities (those same protrusions of the pelvis sticking out backwards, like the tail of a swallow), and is attached to the medial condyles of the femur and tibia; along the way they are joined by another muscle bundle starting from the ischial mounds.

Let's look at the picture:

Now, looking into the popliteal fossa, we see that it is empty there. There are two side walls formed by the semimembranous muscle on one side and the vastus lateralis on the other. Let's fill the popliteal fossa with muscle mass, gradually narrowing and continuing from the middle of the tibia to the heel as a thin flagellum.

Thus, we depicted not one specific muscle, but two entire muscle groups. There is no need for us to list each of these muscles; we can easily call them the muscles of the back of the lower leg. Functionally, they flex the knee joint, extend the foot and flex the toes (that is, the three distal phalanges).

Let's move on to the inner thigh.

There are several muscles there in layers, which we will not neglect, since they can be clearly seen during certain movements, for example, when extending the hip. That is, we will not always have the need to carefully sculpt them, but still, they will be useful to an inquisitive mind!

The sartorius muscle - M. sartorius starts from the pelvis, in this case it does not matter where, since we will not be able to see its beginning, but ends on the medial surface of the knee joint, continuing with a tendon on the tibia. To avoid confusion, the picture shows: 1 - quadratus femoris (vasus medialis and vastus intermedius muscles) 2 - semimembranous muscle 3 - group of muscles on the back surface of the leg.

Passing along the edge of the sartorius muscle, a wide ribbon runs the tender muscle M. Gracilis. It has this name, probably because in humans it is very thin. Well, as we see, the konik is still that piece of meat!

Let's look at the notation again: 1 - quadratus femoris, 2 - sartorius muscle, 3 - tender muscle.

We're almost done with the inner thigh.

We get out from under the horse and move upstairs, to the very croup. We will do the gluteal muscles. There are actually three gluteal muscles - small, medium and large - exactly like in humans. We don’t see the small one - it is hidden inside and beautifully envelops the neck of the femur. The average one turns out to be the largest in terms of occupied area. It again starts from the neck of the femur, then attaches, so to speak, to keep it simple - to the vertebrae, starting from the 3rd sacral and then goes forward in the direction of the latissimus dorsi muscle. It’s hard to tell, it’s better to look at the pictures:

I think its course is completely clear and no additional comments are required.

Now we see the space formed by the border of the gluteus medius muscle and the upper edge of the thigh. It is covered with a special membrane called fascia, and in order to prevent this fascia from dangling like a spaniel’s ears, there is also a muscle called the Muscle that stretches the fasciae lata - M.Tensor fasciae latae. It spreads out like a wide fan in three tufts from the top of the head to the thigh.

In many cases, when working on a sculpture, you will be able to start sculpting the volumes of the hind leg precisely from this muscle, lowering all sorts of thigh squares.

Next comes one of the most prominent and carved muscles on the horse’s body - the biceps femori muscle (M.Biceps Femori). It begins directly behind the posterior edge of the gluteus maximus muscle and beautifully bending and expanding towards the tibia, along the way forming three muscle bundles that are often clearly visible on the horse’s body (all three are not always visible, but sometimes, knowing where to look, you can see)

Today I intend to finish our anatomical study.

Let's look at the penultimate photo. We see a gap between the biceps femoris and the semimembranous muscle, through which a white piece of bone peeks through (the ischial tuberosity, by the way). So now we’ll add another muscle that will fill this gap. This will be the semitendinosus muscle (M. Semitendinosus). It starts from the last two sacral vertebrae, goes down in a beautiful relief arc, covers the ischial tuberosity and further down, passes to the inner side of the thigh, crosses the semimembranous and tender muscles and clings to the medial condyles.

Then we will also depict a tendon constriction coming from the angle between the thigh muscles and the muscles of the back surface of the leg on both sides, as if outlining the femoral biceps on one side and the semitendinosus muscle on the other. In the picture it can be seen as a thin white strip placed in this depression. It turns out something like constrictions on the arms and legs of babies and angels.

We are safely done with the pelvis and thigh. All that remains for us now is to complete the work on the lower leg. There are several small muscles and tendons begin, deep and superficial in large numbers.

For simplicity and convenience, I will not talk about each of them, but what we do will look like three small details:

The singing - Achilles tendon - runs along the back surface of the lower leg, covers the heel bone and then a bunch of finger flexor tendons go down along the back surface of the metatarsus.

second - we apply two muscle bundles. One on the lateral surface, the second on the anterolateral surface. On the pictures they are designated by numbers 3 and 4. Each of these bundles includes two muscles. In the lateral are M.Flexor hallucis longus M.Extensor digitorum pedis lateralis. If I translate their names to you, you will laugh for a long time. The first is the deep flexor of the little finger (!). The second is the lateral extensor of the toes. So it turns out funny, but all these names come from matching the names of human muscles. Functionally, they differ from each other, judging even by the name. One is a flexor, the second is an extensor. Therefore, further on I even slightly showed the difference in the course of their tendons - the extensor tendon gradually passes to the front surface and then goes along with the rest of the extensor tendons, and the flexor tendon of the little finger passes in the groove between the 4th styloid bone and the metatarsal bone.

What is indicated in the picture by number 4 is two other muscles - M.Extensor digitorum longus - long extensor digitorum and M.Tibialis anterior - tibialis anterior muscle. Their tendons run along the front surface of the metacarpus.

General anatomy of a horse examines the structure of its body and major organs. In addition to the common names for all (head, legs, neck, etc.), there are a number of special terms denoting parts of the horse. Knowing them helps horse breeders quickly and correctly understand each other when describing the breed and characteristics of a horse.

General anatomy of a horse examines the structure of its body and major organs

Listening to the conversation of horse lovers, it is easy to notice that they use words that are not entirely clear. The height of an animal is usually referred to as “height at the withers”, and the parts of the horse’s body are called studs. There are basic characteristics that horse breeders use when describing a horse.

The external anatomical structure of a horse consists of examining the body of the animal and its individual parts. The conditional division is as follows:

• head;
• torso;
• tail;
• legs.

Most often, it is in this order that articles are described. At the same time, pay attention to the shape, location, development of muscles and individual marks on the skin (spots, scorch marks, changes in hair color, etc.).

Head and neck

The head is divided into facial and occipital parts. The first includes ears and forehead, eyes, ganache. In front is the horse's muzzle. Ganache is the name given to the chewing muscles that hold the lower jaw in place. Externally, this structure looks like raised protrusions below the horse’s ears. A horse's muzzle is the animal's upper lip combined with the nose. The nostrils and chin (lower jaw) are examined separately. When describing articles, attention is paid to the back of the head. This is the part of the head located behind the ears and connecting the head to the neck. It is believed that a short poll contributes to better contact between the rider and the horse.

The head is divided into the front and back parts

In the cervical region, clearly visible parts are the jugular groove (1 on each side of the neck) and the crest with mane. When describing such a feature as a neck, they talk about its length and power. Mane refers to long strands of hair that grow in a narrow stripe on the upper edge of the neck - the ridge. The ridge starts from the back of the head and ends at the base of the neck, where it meets the withers.

Horse hoof anatomy (video)

What does the torso consist of?

The body consists of several sections: the withers, shoulders and chest in front, the belly and sides from below in the middle part, and the back, lower back, rump and croup - above and behind. A horse's withers are called being above the shoulder blades. The powerful muscles that are concentrated in this section are outwardly visible, like a convex relief, if you look at the horse in profile. The height of the animal is measured precisely by the projection of the highest point of the withers above the ground, although the head is located much higher.

The shoulders are the lateral sections of the muscles between the withers and chest. The latter refers to the part of the body that is located below the neck in front and passes between the front legs. Speaking about the depth of the chest, we mean a decrease in its line in this part. Next is the stomach and sides. These sections cover all the lower and lateral sections of the body.

The hindquarters of the horse are a separate piece. Above the sides, it is customary to distinguish maklaki: the projection of the hip bones. The back is considered to be the section located in front of them, starting from the withers and along the entire upper part of the body. Above the rumps is the loin, and behind them is the area called the horse's croup.

This section includes highly developed muscles on the sacrum and thighs. At the junction of the croup and flanks there are the inguinal regions of the body, which below pass into the udder (in mares) or prepuce (in stallions). When looking at a horse from behind, you can notice such features as the roundness and width of the croup. From the side, the degree of its drooping is noticeable - a view of the upper part.

Tail and legs

The horse's tail is also considered as a separate part and when describing it they talk about its length, meaning the distance from the beginning at the very croup to the ends of the long horsehair. But the horse's tail is also divided into several parts.

The repicule is the area where it extends from the body. This is a projection of the first caudal vertebra. If you imagine a horse without a tail, consisting of hair, you will find its base made of vertebrae with muscles, covered with skin, like other animals. Thanks to this structure of the tail, the horse can make various movements with it: swing, lift, etc. Horsehair makes this look beautiful and increases its apparent length several times.

The front and hind legs of a horse differ in appearance from each other. Only the lowermost sections have common names:

• hooves;
• grandmothers;
• fetlock joints and brushes.

The hoof is a horny formation that serves to protect internal tissues when moving. Particular attention is paid to this article, since the performance and condition of the hooves depend on the shape and condition of the hooves. No less important are the pasterns - the sections corresponding to the first phalanx of the human finger. These are the main supporting parts of the legs.

The fetlock joint connects the pasterns to the metacarpus (on the front legs) or metatarsus (on the hind legs). There is a brush on it, which is elongated hair at the back of the joint. In some breeds, the brushes are highly developed and form friezes consisting of very long hair covering both the pastern and the hooves.

Higher up on the hind legs, metatarsals, hocks and shins are distinguished. The horse's knee joint is located near the belly, under the croup. The metacarpus, carpus and forearm are visible on the front legs. The elbow joint is located on the side of the chest. The shape of the legs is noticeably different from that of a human, but all questions become clear if we consider the structure of the horse’s skeleton.

What's under a horse's hoof (video)

Skeleton appearance

In the most general terms, the structure of the horse's skull includes the brain and facial sections and a free lower jaw. The recesses, each of which should accommodate a horse's eye, are located under the lateral side of the bony base of the head. There are also auditory canals on the side.

Examining the horse's skull, you can notice its extensive facial part and many thin plates in the nasal region. Their large overall surface area plays a role in making the horse's nose sensitive to odors. The partitions also create a kind of labyrinth where the air can warm up before entering the lungs.

The head is connected to the body through the cervical vertebrae. The horse's skull is movably attached to them at the condyles. Further, the spine consists of the thoracic region, where its elements have long upper processes. This makes it possible to attach a large number of developed muscles of the shoulder girdle and withers. The dorsal and sacral sections of the spine consist of elements with less pronounced processes. The caudal vertebrae are smaller than all the others and have no processes.

Examining the horse’s skull, you can notice its extensive facial part and many thin plates in the nasal region

The rib cage consists of ribs that are movably connected to the spine. The bones of the forelimbs do not form joints that connect them to the spine. The hind legs have a movable hip joint, and the pelvic bones are fused to the spine.

By studying the skeleton of a horse, you can understand why its hind legs bend backward. The femur and tibia are connected by the knee joint. It is located high, outwardly it looks like the very beginning of the leg. The horse's hock joint corresponds to the human heel, so the limb bends backward. The sections below are called the metatarsus. Like the human foot, it contains a large number of small fused bones. The pastern is the phalanx of one of the fingers. The rest were lost in the process of evolution. The front leg is designed in a similar way.

Muscles are attached to the bones of the skeleton. The horse's muscular apparatus is well developed and gives the animal the opportunity to perform various movements. The horse's skin is dense and covered with hair.

Internal structure

Internal organs are numerous and varied. They form several separate systems:

• nervous;
• circulatory;
• digestive;
• respiratory;
• genitourinary

The work of each system is subordinate to the main parts of the nervous system: the brain and spinal cord. These organs are reliably protected by the bones of the skull and spine.

The circulatory system includes the heart, located inside the chest, and vessels of different sizes and purposes. They permeate the horse's entire body, delivering blood to all other organs. Through blood, their tissues are supplied with oxygen and nutrients and cleansed of waste products.

The digestive system is responsible for supplying nutrition. During feed processing, beneficial substances enter the bloodstream and are transferred to tissues. Waste products enter the liver and kidneys and are excreted through the urinary tract and intestinal tract. The reproductive organs are responsible for the production of hormones and cells that serve for the reproduction of animals. The system also includes the external parts of these organs.

The respiratory system consists of the larynx and trachea, and includes 2 lungs located inside the chest. This system is closely connected with the circulatory system, which allows oxygen to enter the blood and flow to tissues and organs.

The detailed description of the horse and its structure is very extensive. Studying the anatomical features of an animal is a necessity for veterinarians or zoologists. If desired, the necessary knowledge can be acquired in special educational institutions.

The scapular cartilage is powerful. The glenoid cavity in front has a glenoid notch.

The lateral and medial tubercles of the humerus are divided into dorsal - trochlear and volar - muscular.

In a horse, the radius bone is highly developed. The ulna is greatly reduced; only the proximal half remains of it, fused to the radius.

The horse has four bones in the proximal row.

There are three metacarpal bones, only one of which, the third metacarpal, is well developed.

In the horse, the coffin bone is divided into the proximal articular surface, wall and plantar surfaces.

The pelvic cavity is cone-shaped.

In a horse, the fossa on the head of the femur is replaced by a large triangular notch of the head.

The distal trochlear articular surface of the tibia is limited by two ankles - medial and lateral; the grooves and ridge between the ankles run askew.

The proximal end of the fibula is flattened, widened, and has the roughness of the tibia.

In a horse, the third metatarsal bone is massive, rounded in cross section and longer.

Features of the horse skull:

• the temporal fossae are separated from each other by the external sagittal ridge, which passes into the external frontal ridges;
• the orbits are closed, since the frontal bones connect with the zygomatic processes of the temporal bones;
• the free ends of the nasal bones are pointed;
• supraorbital foramina lead into the orbit;
• the external auditory canals are relatively short and directed laterally;
• toothless edges on the jaws of considerable length, sockets for fangs exist only in males;
• the bony cerebellar tentorium protrudes on the interparietal bone;
• facial ridges are strongly developed on the upper jaws;
• the choanae are wide;
• The mandibular bones fuse very early into an unpaired bone, their ventral edges are straight, and vascular notches are clearly visible on them. Material from the site

The horse's vertebrae are very massive and long, their heads and fossa are strongly pronounced, the spinous processes are replaced by roughness. The transverse costal processes are equipped with two branches; one of them (costal process) is directed cranially, and the other (transverse process) is directed caudally. The ventral ridges are strongly pronounced, with the exception of the crest of the 6th vertebra. The length of the vertebrae decreases from the 3rd to the 6th. On the 6th vertebra, the intertransverse foramen is the widest, and the costal process is also wide.

Cervical region

Among the horse’s cervical vertebrae, the first two and the last should be especially highlighted. In structure, these vertebrae, unlike others, differ significantly from each other.

Thoracic region

A horse has 18 (19) thoracic vertebrae. Their bodies are prismatic due to the presence of a ventral ridge, weakly developed only on the middle vertebrae. The spinous processes, with the exception of the first four, are strongly thickened at the free ends, and their caudal edges are blunt. The length of the processes increases until the 5th vertebra, then decreases again. Diaphragmatic vertebra 15th (14-16). The cranial articular processes are noticeably expressed only on the 1st vertebra, and on the rest there are only facets. Sometimes there are lateral vertebral foramina, as in cattle. On the last vertebrae, the mastoid processes are located on the cranial articular processes.

A horse has 18 pairs of ribs; the width of the ribs is uniform throughout, regardless of their shape - lamellar or approaching cylindrical. The neck is short; tubercle with a slightly concave facet. The length and curvature of the ribs increases from the 1st to the 10th (11th), then decreases again, the last rib is approximately equal in length to the 3rd. The width of the ribs increases from the 1st to the 6th (7th), therefore the first 6-7 ribs are lamellar, with their anterior concave edges being sharper, and their posterior convex edges being blunter and thicker. The ribs from the 8th to the last are more rounded, even tetrahedral. The vascular grooves along the caudal edge are clearly visible, as well as the muscular grooves on the outer surface of the first ribs and on the anterior surface of the last. The sternal end of the 1st rib is greatly expanded; on the anterior edge of its body there is a tubercle for the scalene muscle.

In a horse, the chest bone is significantly compressed from the sides and therefore has acquired a keel-like shape; only in the caudal region is it flattened dorsoventrally. The handle is fused to the body and is supplemented at the front with cartilage - 9 “falcons”. This cartilage forms the ventral ridge. There are 8 pairs of costal notches located along the dorsal edge of the sternum. There is only xiphoid cartilage without the xiphoid process.

In the area of ​​the false ribs the chest is wide. In its anterior section, the spinous processes are very large and, together with the vertebrae, form the skeleton of the withers.

Lumbar

A horse has 6 lumbar vertebrae. Articular processes with flat facets. The vertebral bodies are short; the ventral ridge is found only on the first vertebrae.

The transverse costal processes are set horizontally or even slightly elevated dorsally; on the first vertebrae they are slightly deflected caudally, and on the posterior ones - cranially. The longest processes are on the middle vertebrae. On the last two or three vertebrae, the transverse costal processes are equipped with articular facets for connection with each other and with the wings of the sacrum. The length of the spinous processes exceeds their width.

Sacral section

The horse has 5 (6) sacral vertebrae. The apices of the spinous processes are isolated, their free ends are thickened and often bifurcated. The wings of the sacrum have the shape of triangular pyramids; they are directed laterally to the horizontal plane and are connected by cranial facets to the transverse costal processes of the last lumbar vertebra; the ear-shaped articular surfaces face dorso-caudally. The pelvic surface of the sacrum is flat. The cranial articular processes are well developed.

The description of a horse of any breed begins with the exterior, where the most important features and structural features are indicated: neck projection, withers, head profile, shoulder and back structure, croup length, limb posture. The most common defects are also indicated in the description: softness of the back, sabering, butt-shaped pasterns, etc. You can understand all the features of an animal’s exterior only by understanding the structure of the horse.

The horse skeleton includes more than two hundred bones. Each bone of the skeleton is covered with durable periosteal tissue and penetrated by a large number of blood vessels. The periosteal tissue contains a large number of nerve endings that transmit signals to and from the brain. All bones are connected to each other - some by movable joints, some by fixed joints. The bones that make up a horse's skeleton vary in shape, size, type and strength. So the horse’s skull consists of thirty-four fairly strong and flat bones, connected to each other by sutures. The bones are immobile, and their strength allows them to withstand quite strong blows. However, it is significantly lighter than the skull of cows or even pigs, and its shape is more streamlined and pointed. The bones of the limbs are characterized by movable joints, greater thickness, and a more rounded shape.

Features of the structure of the horse's body, legs and head

Regardless of the breed, purpose, age or gender, the horse’s body structure remains unnamed and consists of:

• Heads.
• Torso.
• Limbs.

The science of horses or hippology - gives a clear description and definition of each part of the horse skeleton, its features, functionality, as well as possible defects and shortcomings.

Horse's head

The expressiveness of a horse's head depends entirely on the breed of the animal. The profile can be convex, concave, straight, with a small hump. A beautiful head should have correct proportions, be dry, with light lines, mobile ears, wide and open, clean nostrils, well-defined ganache. The correct length of the head is 2/5 of the height of the animal at the withers. The optimal head position is at an angle of 45 degrees to the neck. This position does not create problems for the horse’s work and collection, and does not cause breathing or health problems.

The horse's eyes are large and expressive, with long and often thick eyelashes. Like people, an animal's eyes can express fatigue or fear, reflect good or bad health, and show mood. The eyeball should be clean and clear - any clouding indicates serious problems in the horse's health. These noble animals are not adapted to breathing through their mouths. Inhalation and exhalation are carried out through the nostrils, which are covered with very sensitive and thin skin with long, thin hairs that perform a tactile function.

Horses' nostrils are flexible and can open wide, allowing for greater air flow. The lips are also covered with tactile hairs and delicate skin. Stallions have forty teeth, mares have thirty-six. With age, teeth wear down. The bit iron rests on the toothless edge of the mouth, located between the incisors and molars. The toothless edge of the mouth is a feature of the structure of the horse’s jaw, and not the result of the removal of part of the teeth, as many people think.

Neck

The performance of the animal depends on the length of the neck, bend, and correct posture. The neck can have a low, medium or high set, and also vary in high or low, or medium set. Horse science describes three main shapes of the animal's neck: straight, deer (Adam's apple) and swan. The straight neck can also be short or long, fleshy, thin. The swan neck has a beautiful curve and long nape lines. The deer neck has a convex lower edge and a straight or concave upper edge.

Horses with long swan necks are larger and better adapted to collection, which is important when working in dressage and show jumping.

Deer neck often leads to breathing problems due to the curvature of the throat. The horse's performance and overall appearance depend on the carriage of the neck. A very high neck position leads to concavity of the back, softness, and sagging. Low stance - to a convex, carp-shaped, humpbacked back. The length of a horse's neck largely depends on the breed. Horses of riding breeds have the longest necks. Draft and draft horse breeds have a short and fleshy neck. For riding breeds, an excessively short neck is a significant drawback - it complicates the horse's working collection and interferes with normal breathing and free movements.

Torso

The horse's body is the main and most complex part of the animal's structure. The withers are the highest point of the body, above the shoulder. It is at the withers that the height of the animal is measured. The withers can be medium, high, low, wide or narrow. A long dorso-lumbar line runs along the entire back from the withers to the sacral joint. It is an important connecting link between the front and rear girdles of the limbs, a kind of axis for transmitting the impulse of movement from the back pair of legs to the front. The length of the line must correspond to the direct use of the horses. Thus, riding breeds have a longer back line, while draft breeds have a shorter back line, with good muscles and sufficient width. This is explained by the difference in gaits (harness breeds are more inclined to step work), as well as the use of the back muscles.

A concave back is a significant disadvantage for both riding and draft breeds.

The ideal shape of the croup is slightly sloping, with good muscle definition and of sufficient length for the breed. A horizontal croup reduces performance and negatively affects the functioning of the hock joints, and an excessive slope is inherent in horses with a strong and frisky gallop, but negatively affects the quality of the trot and stride. The shape and size of the chest largely depends on the breed, structure of the animal and training. A more voluminous chest has a good effect on the animal’s performance, as it has enough space for the development of the lungs and heart. Massive chests are found in draft and draft horses. The chest is medium in width, but high and fairly deep - a feature of the riding breeds.

Limbs

All parts of the horse are equally important, but special attention is paid to the structure, shape, and placement of the limbs in the description of the exterior. The animal's front legs play a large role in maintaining the center of gravity, as well as moving forward and upward. The extension of the forelimbs directly affects the capture of space, plasticity and freedom, smoothness of movement. The belt of the fore and hind limbs consists of:

• Shoulders and forearms.
• Elbow.
• Wrists and metacarpus.
• Fetlock and hock joint.
• Pastorals.
• Crowns.
• Corolla and hoof.

The freedom and quality of movement of the horse directly depends on the correct shape of the shoulders. The ideal shoulder position in relation to the body is at an angle of 45 degrees, and the ideal length is equal to the length of the head. For draft horses, the shoulder angle is not so important, since for them it is not the quality of the gait that is important, but the strength. Therefore, heavy draft horses are more characterized by a long, muscular shoulder with a more straight posture. The forearm of a riding horse should also be long. Forearm length is especially important for racehorses and trotting horses. The correct wrist is dry, of sufficient width, short, straight and in one straight line with the lower leg and forearm. When moving, the wrist should work freely and softly.

The pastern is located from the hock joint in the hind legs to the fetlock joint and from the wrist to the fetlock joint in the front legs. The correct pastern is significantly shorter than the forearm, wider and drier. The back five is longer, with developed and well-defined tendons, quite dry and strong. The hock joint should also be dry, and its set and turned angle should be 160 degrees.

The horse's hoof requires special care and attention, since it bears the entire load and weight of the animal's body.

The hoof mouth is a calloused and fairly durable keratinized structure that can withstand impacts on a variety of surfaces. The shape of the hoof depends largely on the breed of horse. Saddlebred horses have taller, narrower hooves, while draft horses have wider, flatter hooves.

It is important to know the anatomy of a horse not only for specialists working in the field of veterinary medicine, but also for all lovers of horse riding, because the more knowledge you have about the structure of a horse, the better you will be able to control and understand the animal.

Skeletal structure of a horse

There are a total of 205 bones in the skeleton, and it is especially strong, because the animal is mobile and dynamic. Horse bone consists of six tissue elements. Those bones that are stationary are connected by sutures, and the moving bones are connected by joints.

54 bones of the skeleton are located in the spine. It should be noted that the number of bones in the spine may vary depending on the breed of animal. Thirty-four plate bones make up the horse's skull. Most of them are connected by seams, that is, they are immovable. The cranial bones are among the strongest and most durable in the animal’s body. Thirty-seven bones are found in the rib cage. It is formed by the ribs and breast bone and serves as protection for the heart and lungs. The limbs consist of the shoulder and pelvic girdles, which connect the limbs to the pelvic region.

Main articles: skeleton, horse skull and others

A formation that performs a specific function in the body is called article. Knowledge of them is necessary for every beginning groom.

Horse muzzle may have different types of profile. This directly depends on the breed of the animal.

Thus, a horse in profile can be of the following types:

• concave
• convex
• straight
• wavy

Also, a horse's muzzle differs in size, which must be taken into account when purchasing a bridle.

Head. This horse's position must be proportional to its body, because if it exceeds the required size, then the balance in the animal's body is disturbed, causing additional stress on the forelimbs, and this, in turn, leads to health problems. The bones in a horse's skull are especially strong because they protect the brain.

The horse's breathing should be even and calm, and this characteristic depends on the distance between the branches of the lower jaw, as well as the large nostrils. Standard ears An animal is determined by its breed, but in absolutely all animals they must be symmetrical. A healthy horse's eyes do not have eyesores or other clouding. They must be clean and large. Sunken eyes are called “pig eyes” and do not at all decorate the animal.

State oral cavity helps determine the age of the animal. As a standard, stallions have more teeth than mares, as the latter rarely have canines. A total of 12 incisors - six above and six below - are located in front, on the upper and lower jaws. They are followed by a toothless edge, which is adapted for controlling horses with a bit.

Age can be determined by the shape, length or color of teeth. A horse's molars are not as white as milk teeth, and are much longer than them.

Neck affects such characteristics as speed, the animal’s ability to jump and the beauty of its physique. The neck and head are the regulators of the horse's balance. A neck that is set at forty-five degrees to the horizontal is considered normal. It should also be 25 to 30 percent longer than the head. The short neck limits the extension of the animal's front legs, which makes it slower. When it passes into the withers it forms top line.

Withers in a horse, this is the part that protrudes between the neck and back and is motionless. Heavy draft horses have low withers, while sporting animals have high and long withers.

Shoulder consists of the scapula and humerus. Heavy draft horses have short shoulders, while long ones are desirable for racehorses. Free movement is ensured by a shoulder blade located at an angle of forty-five degrees to the horizontal. Shoulder blades that are at a large angle indicate that the horse may begin to limp under high loads.

In a healthy animal elbow tightly pressed to the chest. If the horse's muscles are poorly developed, the elbow is set back, which leads to possible injuries caused by the hind legs and the front legs.

Z wrist should be dry, long and well defined.

In a horse with short forearm , the move is more graceful, and an animal with a long forearm rearranges its legs more sweepingly.

In area metacarpus The tendons are especially well developed, so it should be short and correctly positioned.

The horse's gait and endurance directly depend on fetlock joints . They should be wide and well developed.

Hooves The legs of a healthy horse are shiny, there are no cracks on them, and the soles of the hooves are clean and have no signs of inflammation. They can be of completely different colors, but the darker they are, the stronger they are.

Wide and deep breast- a sign of a well-developed animal. This part of the horse's body is quite narrow if he is athletic.

Back and lower back, aka topline , should be level and straight. An animal whose back and lower back are longer than the length of its head will have an easy walk.

Croup, that is, the hindquarters of the horse occupy 35 percent of the entire body. It can be oblique, straight or oval, but always wide. The horse's croup attaches to itself the strongest muscles, which must push and lift the horse while moving.

Trained animals have a fit belly . If this part of the animal’s body is saggy, then this indicates flat ribs and a crooked back. It may also be present in mares that have foaled many times, or in animals that once suffered from rickets.

Hock joint is the support of the pelvic girdle. Its important function is performed calcaneus. If the animal was overloaded, then there is a high probability of swelling on the horse’s legs, which threatens the development of diseases such as kurba and spar.

Horse tail is in line with the croup. If the tail is too thin, this indicates the fragility of the animal. The tail also helps horses communicate in the herd.

Horse skin

Examination of the skin allows you to understand the state of the animal’s digestive system and how well its metabolism works. It protects the body from the harmful effects of the external environment and promotes the production of vitamin D.

Consists of leather from the following layers:

• Epidermis, in which hair grows.
• Dermis. It consists of two layers. The first contains sebaceous and sweat glands, many blood vessels and nerve endings. In the second there are fibers and collagen plexuses.
• Subcutaneous layer contains reserves of nutrients presented in the form of fat.

At the base of the skin are located sebaceous glands, which are responsible for lubricating hair and skin, thereby protecting them from brittleness and cracks.

Without sweat glands thermoregulation could not exist, since they secrete sweat, helping to cool the animal.

IN mammary glands milk is formed and accumulated. A mare can produce about 20 liters of milk per day.

Sense organs

The horse has five main senses:

The organ of smell is located in the nasal cavity. Horses have a particularly sensitive sense of smell, which allows them to determine the condition of the feed and refuse it if the food is spoiled.

The organ of vision is the eye, which consists of the eyeball connected to the brain and other organs. The eyeball is located in the bony socket and consists of a membrane, blood vessels, nerves and light-refracting media.

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