The Inquisition and its role in the fight against dissent. The fight of the Catholic Church with heretics Where was the fight of the Catholic Church with heretics

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MBOU "Secondary School No. 9, Chita"

Abstract on the topic

“The fight of the Catholic Church against heretics. Inquisition"

Completed by: student of class 10A

Double-sexed Asya

Checked by: history teacher

Terez L.V

Chita 2013

Introduction

In the XI - XIII centuries. The church in Europe achieved great power. Not a single event took place without her.

The Church did not recognize any borders, neither state nor language.

It affirmed the unity of European peoples and was, as scientists - theologians and parish priests never tired of repeating, a perfect community of people pleasing to God. The idea that one could live happily and not at the same time be a faithful son of the Christian Church simply could not occur to a medieval European. The world around him, his affections, his daily actions were part of the order established by God. Not believing, not praying, not going to church - in the eyes of the people of the Middle Ages, was against life itself.

The medieval church wielded enormous power in the Christian world. The Middle Ages were a Christian civilization. The life of society and man was inextricably linked with religion and the demands of the church.

By the beginning of the Middle Ages, Christianity had been the official religion of the Roman Empire for about two centuries.

Reasons for the emergence of the heretical movement

During the early Middle Ages, at congresses of the highest clergy - church councils, the main tenets of the Christian faith were gradually developed and approved:

§ the doctrine of the Trinity (God is one, but exists in three persons: God the Father, God the Son, the Holy Spirit),

§ about the virgin birth of Christ (from the Spirit of God),

§ about the role of the church as the only mediator between God and people.

The Church was the largest landowner and possessed enormous wealth. The church treasury received income from the payment of church tithes, the sale of church positions, sacred relics, and the conduct of rituals.

Many people did not like the actions of the church, its money-grubbing, and the corruption of the clergy. Among the townspeople, knights, ordinary priests and monks, from time to time there appeared people who openly criticized the church. The clergy called such people heretics.

Heretics claimed that the church was corrupt. They called the pope the deputy of the devil, not God. Heretics rejected expensive church rituals and magnificent services. They demanded that the clergy give up their tithes, their land holdings and wealth. The only source of faith for them was the Gospel. In their sermons, heretics condemned priests and monks for forgetting “apostolic poverty.” They themselves set an example of righteous life: they distributed their property to the poor and ate alms.

Some heretics demanded the renunciation of all property or dreamed of equality in property or predicted that in the near future there would come a “thousand-year reign of justice,” or “the Kingdom of God on earth.”

To strengthen his power and fight against heresies and heretics, the pope created a special church court in the 13th century - the Inquisition.

Holy Inquisition

The Catholic Church fought against heretics: it persecuted them and dealt harshly with them. Excommunication from the church was considered a terrible punishment.

To strengthen his power and fight against heresies and heretics, the pope created a special church court in the 13th century - the Inquisition. The main task of the Inquisition was to determine whether the accused was guilty of heresy.

Church ministers in all countries persecuted heretics and brutally dealt with them. Excommunication from the church was considered a terrible punishment. He who was excommunicated from the church was outlawed: believers had no right to help him or give him shelter.

Punishing disobedience, the pope could impose on a region or even an entire country a ban on performing rituals and worship (interdict). Then churches were closed, babies remained unbaptized, and funeral services for the dead could not be performed. This means that both of them were doomed to hellish torment, which all Christian believers feared.

In an area where there were many heretics, the church organized military campaigns, promising forgiveness of sins to participants. At the beginning of the 13th century, feudal lords went to punish the Albigensian heretics in the rich regions of Southern France; their center was the city of Albi. The Albigensians believed that the entire earthly world (and therefore the church led by the pope) is the creation of Satan, and a person can save his soul only if he completely breaks with the sinful world.

The northern French knights willingly took part in the campaign, counting on rich booty. During the 20 years of war, many prosperous cities of southern France were plundered and destroyed, and their population was killed. In one of the cities, according to the chronicler, soldiers killed up to 20 thousand people. When the papal ambassador was asked how to distinguish heretics from “good Catholics,” he replied: “Kill everyone. God in heaven will recognize his own!”

The main task of the Inquisition was to determine whether the accused was guilty of heresy.

From the end of the 15th century, when ideas about the massive presence of witches who entered into an agreement with evil spirits among the ordinary population began to spread in Europe, witch trials began to fall within its competence. At the same time, the overwhelming majority of witch convictions were made by secular courts in Catholic and Protestant countries in the 16th and 17th centuries. While the Inquisition did persecute witches, so did virtually every secular government. By the end of the 16th century, Roman inquisitors began to express serious doubts about most cases of witchcraft accusations. Also, from 1451, Pope Nicholas V transferred cases of Jewish pogroms to the competence of the Inquisition. The Inquisition had to not only punish pogromists, but also act preventively, preventing violence.

Lawyers of the Catholic Church attached great importance to sincere confession. In addition to ordinary interrogations, torture of the suspect was used, as in secular courts of that time. In the event that the suspect did not die during the investigation, but admitted to his crime and repented, then the case materials were transferred to the court. The Inquisition did not allow extrajudicial killings.

church papacy inquisition heretic

Victims of the Holy Inquisition

One of the servants of the devil, a witch and a saint was Joan of Arc (1412-1431), the national heroine of France, who led her country’s fight against England and brought the heir to the throne, Prince Charles, to the French throne. In 1431, the Inquisition in Rouen burned Joan at the stake on charges of sorcery and heresy, and in 1456 - just 25 years after her painful death - at the request of King Charles VII, whom she elevated to the throne and who did not lift a finger to save her, Joan's trial was revised and Pope Calixtus III found the unfortunate girl innocent. In 1928, she was canonized as the defender of France and is even now considered the patroness of the telegraph and radio. In her honor, a national holiday was established in France, which is celebrated every second Sunday in May.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) - Polish astronomer and thinker. Copernicus outlined his theory in the book “On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres,” which he was in no hurry to publish, because he knew that he would certainly be persecuted by the Inquisition. The Church believed that the irrefutable proof of the geocentric system of the world was the Bible, which says that the Sun moves around the Earth. But Copernicus’s calculations turned out to be even more irrefutable.

A supporter of his heliocentric system was Giordano Filippo Bruno (1548-1600), an Italian philosopher and thinker who came up with the doctrine of the unity and materiality of the Universe. However, Bruno went further than his teacher. He developed the heliocentric system of Nicolaus Copernicus and put forward the position of the plurality of inhabited worlds. But the Inquisition persecuted Bruno not only for his scientific views. The scientist also resolutely rejected ideas about the afterlife, and Bruno saw religion as a force that generates wars, discord and vices in society. He criticized religious pictures of the world and most of Christian dogmas, and denied the existence of God, the Creator of the world. The Catholic Church could not forgive him for this.

Jan Hus (1371-1415) - preacher and thinker, major scientist. Hus denounced the corruption of the Catholic clergy, their trade in indulgences - special letters of absolution, through which one could even receive forgiveness for such a serious sin as murder. He also spoke out against the luxury and wealth of the clergy, called for depriving the Church of property and was against German dominance in the Czech Republic. In 1409-1412, Jan Hus completely broke with Catholicism and placed the authority of the Holy Scriptures above the authority of the pope. Subsequently, Hus was indeed declared a saint.

Martin Luther (1483-1546), German religious leader. Luther was the main “creator” of a new faith - Protestantism, which recognized the absolute authority of the Bible, the only saving “personal faith” and abolished church cult. Luther believed that every person could turn to God himself without the help of priests, and the basis of a person’s faith should not be the instructions of the pope, but the Bible.

Conclusion

It is unlikely that the human mind will ever come up with something more cruel and painful than what the inquisitorial tribunals used to “save” the souls of heretics. Hundreds of thousands burned at the stake, millions languishing in prisons, maimed, rejected, deprived of property and good name - this is the general result of the activities of the Inquisition. Among its victims are participants in heretical movements and opponents of the papacy, leaders of uprisings, philosophers and natural scientists, humanists and educators.

The entire horror of the Inquisition with its countless victims became for Western Christianity a story of church terror and crimes against humanity.

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Inquisition

The Inquisition was a tribunal of the Catholic Church that carried out detective, judicial and punitive functions; has a centuries-old history. Its emergence is associated with the struggle against heretics - those who preached religious views that did not correspond to the dogmas established by the church. The first known heretic to be burned at the stake for his beliefs in 1124 was Peter of Bruy, who demanded the abolition of the church hierarchy. There has not yet been any “legal” basis for this act. It began to take shape at the end of the 12th - first third of the 13th centuries.

In 1184, Pope Lucius III convened a council in Verona, the decisions of which obliged the clergy to collect information about heretics and search for them. According to the papal bull, the bones of previously deceased heretics, as desecrating Christian cemeteries, were subject to exhumation and burning, and property inherited by someone close to them was subject to confiscation.

This was a kind of prelude to the emergence of the institution of the Inquisition. The generally accepted date of its creation is 1229, when church hierarchs at their council in Toulouse announced the creation of an Inquisition tribunal designed to detect, try and punish heretics. In 1231 and 1233 Three bulls of Pope Gregory IX followed, obliging all Catholics to implement the decision of the Toulouse council.

Church punitive bodies appeared in Italy (with the exception of the Kingdom of Naples), Spain, Portugal, France, the Netherlands, Germany, in the Portuguese colony of Goa, and after the discovery of the New World - in Mexico, Brazil and Peru.

After the invention of printing by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century. the tribunals of the Inquisition actually took over the functions of censors. Year after year the list of prohibited books was replenished and by 1785 it amounted to over 5 thousand titles. Among them are books by French and English enlighteners, the Encyclopedia by Denis Diderot, etc.

The most influential and cruel Inquisition was in Spain. Essentially, ideas about the Inquisition and inquisitors were formed under the influence of information about the persecution and reprisals against heretics associated with the name of Thomas de Torquemada, with his life and activities. These are the darkest pages in the history of the Inquisition. The personality of Torquemada, described by historians, theologians, and psychiatrists, still arouses interest to this day.

Thomas de Torquemada was born in 1420. His childhood and adolescence left no evidence of serious emotional turmoil and mental deviations. During his school years, he served as an example of integrity not only for his classmates, but even for his teachers. Having then become a monk of the Dominican order, he was distinguished by his impeccable attitude towards the traditions of the order and the monastic way of life, and thoroughly performed religious rituals. The order, founded in 1215 by the Spanish monk Domingo de Guzman (Latinized name Dominic) and approved by a papal bull on December 22, 1216, was the main support of the papacy in the fight against heresy.

Torquemada's deep piety did not go unnoticed. Rumor about her reached Queen Isabella, and she more than once invited him to head large parishes. He invariably responded with a polite refusal. However, when Isabella wished to have him as her confessor, Torquemada considered it a great honor. In all likelihood, he managed to infect the queen with his religious fanaticism. His influence on the life of the royal court was significant. In 1483, having received the title of Grand Inquisitor, he practically headed the Spanish Catholic tribunal.

The verdict of the secret court of the Inquisition could be public abdication, a fine, imprisonment and, finally, burning at the stake - the church used it for 7 centuries. The last execution took place in Valencia in 1826. The burning is usually associated with auto-da-fé - the solemn announcement of the verdict of the Inquisition, as well as its execution. This analogy is quite legitimate, since all other forms of punishment were handled more casually by the Inquisition.

In Spain, Torquemada resorted to extreme measures much more often than inquisitors in other countries: over 15 years, 10,200 people were burned on his orders. The 6,800 people sentenced to death in absentia can also be considered victims of Torquemada. In addition, 97,321 people were subjected to various punishments. Primarily baptized Jews were persecuted - Marranos, accused of adhering to Judaism, as well as Muslims who converted to Christianity - Moriscos, suspected of secretly practicing Islam. In 1492, Torquemada persuaded the Spanish kings Isabella and Ferdinand to expel all Jews from the country.

This “genius of evil” died a natural death, although, as the Grand Inquisitor, he was constantly shaking for his life. On his table there was always a rhinoceros horn, with the help of which, according to the belief of that era, it was possible to detect and neutralize poison. When he moved around the country, he was accompanied by 50 horsemen and 200 infantry.

Unfortunately, Torquemada did not take his barbaric methods of fighting dissent with him to his grave.

The 16th century was the century of the birth of modern science. The most inquisitive minds devoted their lives to understanding facts, comprehending the laws of the universe, and questioning centuries-old scholastic dogmas. Man's everyday and moral ideas were renewed.

A critical attitude towards the so-called unshakable truths led to discoveries that radically changed the old worldview. Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) stated that the Earth, along with other planets, revolves around the Sun. In the preface to the book “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres,” the scientist wrote that for 36 years he did not dare to publish this work. The work was published in 1543, a few days before the death of the author. The great astronomer encroached on one of the main postulates of church teaching, proving that the Earth is not the center of the Universe. The book was banned by the Inquisition until 1828.

If Copernicus escaped persecution only because the publication of the book coincided with his death, then the fate of Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) was tragic. As a young man he became a monk of the Dominican order. Bruno did not hide his convictions and displeased the holy fathers. Forced to leave the monastery, he led a wandering lifestyle. Persecuted, he fled from his native Italy to Switzerland, then lived in France and England, where he studied science. He outlined his ideas in the essay “On Infinity, the Universe and Worlds” (1584). Bruno argued that space is infinite; it is filled with self-luminous opaque bodies, many of which are inhabited. Each of these provisions contradicted the fundamental principles of the Catholic Church.

While lecturing on cosmology at Oxford University, Bruno engaged in heated discussions with local theologians and scholastics. In the auditoriums of the Sorbonne, the French scholastics experienced the power of his arguments. He lived in Germany for 5 whole years. A number of his works were published there, causing a new explosion of rage of the Italian Inquisition, which was ready to do anything to get the most dangerous, in its opinion, heretic.

At the instigation of the church, the Venetian patrician Mocenigo invited Giordano Bruno as a home teacher of philosophy and... betrayed him to the Inquisition. The scientist was imprisoned in a dungeon. For 8 years, the Catholic tribunal unsuccessfully sought a public renunciation of Giordano Bruno from his scientific works. Finally came the verdict: to punish “as mercifully as possible, without shedding blood.” This hypocritical formulation meant burning at the stake. The fire started burning. After listening to the judges, Giordano Bruno said: “Perhaps you pronounce this sentence with more fear than I listen to it.” On February 16, 1600, in Rome on the Square of Flowers, he stoically accepted death.

The same fate almost befell another Italian scientist - astronomer, physicist, mechanic Galileo Galilei (1564 -1642). The telescope he created in 1609 made it possible to obtain objective evidence of the validity of the conclusions of Copernicus and Bruno. The very first observations of the starry sky showed the complete absurdity of the church’s statements. In the Pleiades constellation alone, Galileo counted at least 40 stars, invisible until then. How naive the works of theologians now looked, explaining the appearance of stars in the evening sky only by the need to shine for people!.. The results of new observations embittered the Inquisition more and more. Mountains on the Moon, spots on the Sun, four satellites of Jupiter, and the dissimilarity of Saturn to other planets were discovered. In response, the church accuses Galileo of blasphemy and fraud, presenting the scientist’s conclusions as a consequence of optical illusion.

The massacre of Giordano Bruno was a serious warning. When in 1616

1. Introduction

A congregation of 11 Dominicans and Jesuits declared the teachings of Copernicus heretical, and Galileo was privately advised to dissociate himself from these views. Formally, the scientist submitted to the demands of the Inquisition.

In 1623, the papal throne was occupied by Galileo's friend Cardinal Barberini, who was known as the patron of the sciences and arts. He took the name Urban VIII. Not without his support, in 1632 Galileo published “Dialogue on the two most important systems of the world - Ptolemaic and Copernican” - a kind of encyclopedia of astronomical views. But even closeness to the Pope did not protect Galileo. In February 1633, the Dialogue was banned by the Roman Catholic court, its author was declared a “prisoner of the Inquisition” and remained so for 9 years until his death. By the way, it was only in 1992 that the Vatican acquitted Galileo Galilei.

Society had difficulty clearing itself of the infection of the Inquisition. Depending on historical, economic, national and many other reasons, the countries of Europe at different times were freed from the tribunals of the church. Already in the 16th century. under the influence of the Reformation they ceased to exist in Germany and France. In Portugal, the Inquisition operated until 1826, in Spain - until 1834. In Italy, its activities were banned only in 1870.

Formally, the Inquisition, under the name of the Congregation of the Holy Office, existed until 1965, when its services were transformed into the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, which continues to fight for the purity of the faith, but by other, not at all medieval, means.

GRAND INQUISITOR

In the middle of the 17th century. German poet Friedrich von Logan, discussing the nature of sin, noted: “Human is to fall into sin, devilish is to persist in it, Christian is to hate it, divine is to forgive.” If we proceed from common sense, Thomas de Torquemada (circa 1420-1498) was characterized only by the “diabolical”. After all, everything that he did in the name of defending religion was a huge, endless sin against the man of the Renaissance, before his desire for knowledge.

The arsenal of tortures invented by the Inquisition over several centuries of its existence is terrible: burning at the stake, torture with the wheel, torture by water, walling up in walls. Torquemada resorted to them much more often than other inquisitors.

Torquemada's fevered imagination first invented opponents who trembled at the mere mention of his name, and then throughout his life the inquisitor himself feared the inevitable revenge of his victims.

Wherever he left his monastery cell, he was accompanied by a devoted bodyguard. Constant uncertainty about his own safety sometimes forced Torquemada to leave his not-so-safe refuge and take refuge in the palace. For some time he found refuge in the chambers of the most guarded building in Spain, but fear did not leave the inquisitor for a moment. Then he embarked on multi-day trips around the country.

But is it possible to hide from the omnipresent ghosts? They waited for him in the olive grove, and behind every orange tree, and even made their way into the temples. Both day and night they watched over him, always ready to settle scores with him.

I think psychiatrists call this condition melancholic epilepsy. All-consuming anxiety causes hatred, despair, anger in the patient, and can suddenly push him to murder, suicide, theft, or arson of a home. Its victims can be immediate relatives, friends, the first person they meet. That's how Torquemada was.

Outwardly always gloomy, overly exalted, abstaining from food for long periods and zealous in repentance during sleepless nights, the Grand Inquisitor was merciless not only towards heretics, but also towards himself. His contemporaries were amazed by his impulsiveness and the unpredictability of his actions.

Once, in the midst of the struggle for the liberation of Granada from the Arabs (80s of the 15th century), a group of wealthy Jews decided to give 300 thousand ducats to Isabella and Ferdinand for this purpose. Torquemada suddenly burst into the hall where the audience was taking place. Not paying attention to the monarchs, without apologizing, without observing any norms of palace etiquette, he pulled out a crucifix from under his cassock and shouted: “Judas Iscariot betrayed his Teacher for 30 pieces of silver, and Your Majesties are going to sell Christ for 300 thousand. Here it is, take it.” and sell!" With these words, Torquemada threw the crucifix on the table and quickly left the hall... The kings were shocked.

The history of the church has seen many cases of extreme fanaticism. How much sadism came, for example, from the Inquisition during the burning of Miguel Servetus (Latinized name Servetus), a Spanish physician and author of several works that questioned the theologians' reasoning about the Holy Trinity. In 1553 he was arrested by order of the High Inquisitor of Lyon. He managed to escape, but in Geneva the heretic was again captured by agents of the Inquisition and sentenced by order of John Calvin to be burned at the stake. For two hours he was roasted over low heat, and, despite the desperate requests of the unfortunate man to add more firewood for the sake of Christ, the executioners continued to prolong their own pleasure, enjoying the convulsions of the victim. However, even this barbaric act cannot be compared with the cruelty of Torquemada.

The Torquemada phenomenon is one-dimensional: cruelty, cruelty and more cruelty. The Inquisitor left behind neither treatises, nor sermons, nor any notes that would allow us to evaluate his literary abilities and theological views. There are several testimonies from contemporaries who noted Torquemada’s undoubted literary gift, which somehow manifested itself in his youth. But, apparently, he was not destined to develop, because the inquisitor’s brain, having fallen into the power of one idea, worked only in one direction. The Inquisitor was simply alien to intellectual demands.

Moreover, Torquemada became an implacable opponent of the printed word, seeing books primarily as heresy. Following people, he often sent books to the fire, surpassing all inquisitors in this regard.

Diogenes was truly right: “Villains obey their passions, like slaves to their masters.”

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Additional Information

Inquisition.

The Inquisition was the name given to a series of institutions of the Roman Catholic Church that were called upon to combat heresy. The task of the Inquisition was to determine whether the accused was guilty of the heresy attributed to him. The origins of this phenomenon are associated with early Christianity, when bishops carried out trials over heretics. But then the punishments were mild. The maximum that threatened an apostate was excommunication from the church.

Gradually, bishops gained more and more power; starting from the 11th century, the church began to use violent methods. Since the 15th century, the Inquisition began to deal with witch trials, exposing them in connection with evil spirits. The courts of the Inquisition raged across Europe until the 17th century. Thousands of people burned in the fire of the church, church courts treated Giordano Bruno, Galileo and many others cruelly.

According to modern estimates, the number of victims of the medieval Inquisition is up to 10 million people. Recent times have been characterized by the church's official recognition of the mistakes of this institution. It seems to many that the Inquisition is a sea of blood, bonfires, and warlike priests. However, it is not entirely correct to perceive this institution this way. Let's look at some of the misconceptions about the Inquisition.

The Inquisition existed in the Middle Ages. In fact, it was during this period that the Inquisition was just beginning its activities. It flourished during the Renaissance, which for some reason was considered humane. During the historical period called the New Time, the Inquisition also flourished. In France, Diderot and Voltaire were already working, and the bonfires burning witches were still burning. The last burning of a heretic by the court of faith dates back to 1826. During this enlightened time, Pushkin wrote his Eugene Onegin.

Only the Inquisition conducted witch hunts. Witches have never been held in high esteem.

Inquisition

Until the 16th century, almost all cases related to witchcraft took place not in church, but in secular courts. In Germany, after the Reformation, there was no trace of the Inquisition, and the fires against witches burned with no less force than in the rest of Europe. The infamous Salem Trial, during which 20 people were killed on charges of witchcraft, generally took place in America at the end of the 17th century. Naturally, there are no traces of the Inquisition in this event.

The inquisitors were especially cruel, using the most sophisticated tortures. Cinema often depicts how the holy fathers torture confessions out of victims. The tools themselves seem simply terrible. However, the truth is that all these tortures and the tools for their implementation were not invented by priests, but existed long before them. For any judicial investigation of that time, the use of torture was commonplace. The Inquisition itself practically did not have its own prisons, executioners and, accordingly, instruments of torture. All this was “rented” from municipal authorities or lords. It is naive to assume that the executioners were especially cruel when serving the priests.

An incredible number of people became victims of the Inquisition. They say that statistics relate neither to lies nor to truth, being located somewhere at a distance. In this case, the statistics of victims are truly frightening. Until you start comparing them with others. For example, over the same period, secular courts executed many more people than the Inquisition. And the French Revolution, with its idea of revolutionary terror, sacrificed more people than the French Inquisition during all the years of its existence. So the numbers can and should be treated with doubt, especially since everything is learned by comparison.

Those who fell into the hands of the inquisitors were always executed at the stake. According to statistics, the most common sentences of the Inquisition tribunal were not execution by burning, but confiscation of property and exile. Which, you see, is much more humane. The death penalty was used only in exceptional cases, for heretics who were especially persistent in their sinful views.

There is a book called "The Hammer of the Witches", which describes in great detail the procedure for torturing its victims by the Inquisition. Many have read the Strugatskys, but few have delved into history. In fact, this book talks about the theological and legal nuances of the service of the inquisitor. Naturally, they also talk about torture, since in those days the investigative process took it for granted. But there is no trace of a passionate description of the process of torture, or any sophisticated details of torture in “The Witches’ Hammer”.

Burning at the stake was used by the Inquisition to save the souls of sinners. From the point of view of the church, such an act as execution will not affect the salvation of the sinner’s soul in any way. The purpose of the courts of the Inquisition was to bring sinners to repentance, even through intimidation. Execution was applied exclusively to the unrepentant or to those who again became a heretic. Bonfires were used as capital punishment, and not to save souls.

The Inquisition methodically persecuted and destroyed scientists, opposing science in every possible way. The main symbol of this myth is Giordano Bruno, who was burned at the stake for his beliefs. It turns out that, firstly, the scientist conducted propaganda against the church, and, secondly, it is difficult to call him a scientist, since he studied the advantages of the occult sciences. Giordano Bruno, being, by the way, a monk of the Dominican order, discussing the transmigration of souls, was clearly a target for the Inquisition. In addition, circumstances turned against Bruno, which led to a sad end. After the execution of the scientist, the inquisitors began to look suspiciously at the theory of Copernicus, since Giordano Bruno skillfully linked it with the occult. The activities of Copernicus did not raise any questions; no one forced him to renounce his theory. The example of Galileo is widely known, but there are no more famous scientists who suffered from the Inquisition for their scientific work. In parallel with church courts, universities coexisted peacefully across Europe, so it would be dishonest to accuse the Inquisition of obscurantism.

The Church introduced the law that the earth was flat and that it did not rotate, punishing those who disagreed. It is believed that it was the church that approved the dogma that the earth is flat. However, this is not true. The author of this idea (also called geocentric) was Ptolemy, which at the time of its creation was completely scientific. By the way, the creator of the theory himself outlined current research in the field of sphere geometry. Ptolemy's theory eventually gained widespread acceptance, but not because of the church's promotion of it. After all, the Bible says nothing at all about the shape of our planet or the trajectories of celestial bodies.

Popular myths.

Popular facts.

The thirteenth and final method of ending the process of faith and pronouncing the final verdict concerns such an accused who, after examining his case by a judge, together with a council of knowledgeable lawyers, is found to be convicted of heretical perversity, but who is hiding by flight or stubbornly refuses to appear at trial.

There are three possible cases here.

Firstly when the accused is convicted of heresy by his own confession, or the obviousness of his crime, or the incriminating testimony of witnesses, but fled, or does not show up, or, naturally summoned to court, does not want to appear.

Secondly, if the denunciated person is considered, due to denunciation, to be easily suspected and is summoned to clarify his beliefs, but refuses to appear, as a result he is excommunicated and, stubbornly refusing to repent, bears the burden of excommunication.

Third, if someone interferes with the pronouncement of a sentence or the legal proceedings of a bishop or judge and helps with interfering advice or patronage. Such a criminal is pierced with the dagger of excommunication. If he remains under excommunication for a year, stubbornly refusing to repent, then he is subject to condemnation as a heretic.

In the first case above, the offender must be condemned as an unrepentant heretic (see p. ad abolendam, § praesenti). In the second and third cases he is not subject to such condemnation; he must be considered a repentant heretic and punished accordingly (see p. cum contumacia, and also p. ut inquisitionis, § prohibemus, de haeret., lib VI).

It is necessary to act against them in the following way: after establishing a failure to appear, despite a summons to court, the bishop and judges again summon the accused, announcing this in the cathedral of the diocese where the accused committed his crimes, as well as in other churches of the city where he lives , especially where he fled.

This subpoena states:

“We, N.H., by the grace of God the bishop of such and such a city, etc., or the judge of such and such a diocese, declare, guided by the spirit of sound advice, the following: most of all our heart grieves that in our time in the indicated diocese, the fruitful and flourishing church of Christ - I mean by this the vineyard of the god Sabaoth, which was planted by the right hand of the supreme father with virtues, which was abundantly watered by the son of this father with a wave of his own, life-giving blood, which the comforter spirit made fruitful with his wonderful, inexpressible gifts, which he bestowed with the highest, with various advantages, beyond our understanding, the holy trinity, standing and beyond touch, devours and poisons the boar of the forest (by which every heretic is called), destroying the lush fruits of faith and adding the thorny bushes of heresy to the vines. He is also called a coiled serpent, this vile, breathing poison, the enemy of our human race, this Satan and the devil, infecting the vines of the said vineyard of the Lord and its fruits, pouring on them the poison of heretical wickedness... Since you, N.N., have fallen into these damned heresies of witchcraft, having clearly committed them in such and such a place (or: so and so), or was convicted by legitimate witnesses of heretical perversity, or he himself admitted to his actions, your case was examined by us, you were taken into custody and fled, turning away from the healing medicine. We called you to give us more frank answers. But as if led by an evil spirit and seduced by it, you refused to appear.”

“Since you, N. N., were indicated to us as a heretic, and after taking this into account, you and other testimony aroused a slight suspicion of heresy against yourself, we summoned you so that you personally appear and give an answer regarding your beliefs . You stubbornly refused to appear; We excommunicated you and publicly announced it. You remained excommunicated for a year, or for such and such a number of years, hiding in such and such a place. We do not know where the evil spirit has taken you at this time. We waited mercifully and graciously for you to return to the bosom of the holy faith and to the unity of the holy church. However, overwhelmed by base thoughts, you turned away from this. Compelled by the demand of justice to conclude your case with an appropriate sentence and not being able to endure such heinous crimes any longer, we, the above-mentioned bishop and judge of matters of faith, seek you, the mentioned N. N., who has fled, by our present public edict and summon you for the last time , so that you personally appear at such and such an hour, on such and such a day of such and such a month and such and such a year in such and such a cathedral of such and such a diocese and listen to your final verdict, and we point out to you that we , in passing a final verdict on you, we will act against you in a manner consistent with law and justice, whether you appear or not.

In order that our notice may reach you promptly and that you may not be able to protect yourself with a cloak of ignorance, we desire and command that this message, containing the said appeal for the said summons, be nailed publicly on the main doors of the said cathedral . As proof of this, this message is provided with the imprint of our seals.”

If, on the day appointed for the announcement of the final verdict, the person in hiding appears and expresses his consent to publicly renounce heresy, humbly asking for admission to mercy, then he can be admitted to it if he has not fallen into heresy for the second time. If he is convicted of heresy by his own admission or on the basis of the incriminating testimony of witnesses, then he must renounce the heresy as a repentant heretic and repent as indicated in the twenty-seventh question, which deals with such criminals. If he, having aroused strong suspicion of heresy and having been excommunicated for more than a year, repents, then such a heretic must be allowed to show mercy and renounce heresy. The procedure for repentance for such is indicated in the twenty-fifth question of this book. If he appears at the trial, but refuses to renounce the heresy, then he should be treated as an unrepentant heretic and handed over to the secular authorities, as we read in the twenty-ninth question. Given his persistent refusal to appear in court, the verdict reads:

“We, N. N., by the grace of God, bishop of such and such a city, taking into account that you, N. N. (of such and such a city, of such and such a diocese) were denunciated before us of heretical wickedness, accused by public rumor or reliable testimony of witnesses, proceeded, in fulfilling your duty, to investigate whether the accusation brought against you is true. We have found that you have been convicted of heresy. Many credible witnesses have come forward against you. And we ordered that you be summoned to court and taken into custody.

The Holy Inquisition

(It should be stated here how this happened: whether he appeared, whether he was questioned under oath, whether he confessed or not). But you hid, following the advice of the evil spirit and fearing the possibility of healing your wounds with wine and oil (or write, if the situation was different: you fled from prison), and you take refuge here and there. And we don’t know where the above-mentioned evil spirit has led you now...”

“But since we want to finish your case and pronounce the sentence that you deserve and to which justice forces us, we have summoned you so that you personally appear on such and such a day, at such and such an hour and at such and such presence and heard the final verdict; and since you stubbornly refused to appear, then you sufficiently prove that you want to remain forever in your heresy and in your errors, which we regretfully announce and, by declaring, regret. But we cannot and do not want to distance ourselves from justice and tolerate such great disobedience and obstinacy against God’s church; and we pronounce over you, who are absent, as if over you who are present, the following final sentence appointed in the challenge, invoking the name of our Lord Jesus Christ and striving to magnify the Catholic faith and eradicate heretical wickedness, as justice requires this and to which your disobedience and perseverance compels ..."

“We, the said bishop and judge in matters of faith, point out that in the present trial of faith the order of proceedings was not violated; taking into account that you, being naturally summoned to court, did not appear and did not justify your absence either personally or through other persons; taking into account that you stubbornly and for a long time remained in the above-mentioned heresy and still remain and bore for many years the burden of church excommunication and still carry this excommunication in your hardened heart; Considering also that the holy church of God no longer knows what it should do against you, since you persist and will persist in excommunication and in the above-mentioned heresies, we, following in the footsteps of the blessed Apostle Paul, declare, decide and sentence you, N.N. , in your absence, but as if in your presence, to the transfer of secular power, as a stubborn heretic. With our final verdict, we place you at the mercy of the secular court, urgently asking this court that, when you are in its power, it will soften its sentence and not bring the matter to the shedding of blood and the danger of death.”

"The Holy Inquisition"-a special court created to deal with “heretics” - apostates and dissidents. In 1232, the Pope ordered that all cases of heresy be handled by the order of Dominican monks. In 1252, the Inquisition was authorized to use torture. Independent of all local authorities, not recognizing any law other than its own, the Inquisition becomes a formidable force.

With the appearance of an inquisitor in a particular city, residents were ordered to appear and report persons whom they suspected of apostasy. Anyone who evaded denunciation was declared excommunicated. The Inquisition could also initiate persecution based on rumors.

In the inquisition process, the same person conducted the preliminary investigation and passed the verdict. Thus, instead of checking the evidence and evaluating it, the court only confirmed the already established opinion.

Responsible only for gentleness, but not for cruelty, the investigator spared no effort in order to obtain a confession from the accused. The more tricky the question, the sooner it could confuse the person being interrogated, the better it was considered.

The negotiations were, as a rule, secret, accompanied by a gloomy, terrifying ritual.

If it was not possible to obtain a quick confession, the investigation ended and torture was resorted to. The Inquisitor was not bound by her method or time. He began torture at any stage of the process and ended it when he found it necessary, or when he achieved a confession, or when his victim died, unable to bear the torture. At the same time, the torture protocol certainly indicated that if the tortured person “broke any organ” or died, he would be to blame.

Did the inquisitors understand that torture could force a false confession? Without a doubt. But they needed to create an environment of general horror that would allow them to rule unlimitedly. One of the most cruel persecutors of the spirit, Conrad of Marbourg (13th century), believed that it was better to kill 60 innocent people than to let one guilty person escape. This inquisitor sent hundreds of people to their deaths on simple suspicion. Torture also corrupted the judges themselves: cruelty became a habit.

The confession was followed by the so-called reconciliation with the church, which consisted in the remission of sins. The accused had to confirm the interrogation protocol, pointing out that the confession he made was voluntary and not forced (after torture).

If they refused to do this, as well as if the testimony given during the investigation changed, the accused was again recognized (and this time definitively) as having “fallen away” from the church, for which he was certainly subject to being burned alive.

Confession helped avoid burning at the stake, but condemned him to life imprisonment. Denial of guilt led to the stake. At the same time, it was believed that the church “does not shed blood.” Acquittal was rare, but even in this case the person was included in the category of suspicious, and his life was surrounded by hardships until his death. A new suspicion - and nothing could save him from prison or painful death.

Among the political trials that took on a religious shell, the trial of Joan of Arc, a girl of the people, the heroine of the Hundred Years' War between France and England (XV century), who was burned at the stake by decision of the corrupt French clergy, stands out especially.

The Inquisition is a special sacred court. This institute was engaged in searches and pursued an active policy of exterminating heretics. Heretics adhered to and propagated dogmas different from church rules. Heresy is a false teaching. In the understanding of the Inquisition, anyone who deviated in the slightest degree from the established canons in religion became heretics.

The history of the Inquisition as a punitive body begins in the 12th century. There is evidence that the first person to be burned at the stake was the heretic Peter from the city of Bruy. This man demanded the abolition of the hierarchy in the church. At that moment, the legal basis of the Inquisition had not yet been developed; it was only formalized by the 13th century.

History of the Inquisition

At the end of the 12th century. A council was held in Verona. Pope Lucius III openly encouraged the clergy to seek out heretics and persecute them. The canons must be uniform. No one has the right to change the dogmas established by the Catholic Church. Those heretics who had already been buried should be urgently exhumed, their bones burned. The property of heretics was subject to confiscation in favor of the church. But the institution of the Inquisition had not yet been formalized. The date of the beginning of its activity is considered to be 1229 - then at a church meeting in Toulouse they spoke about the creation of the punitive institution of the Inquisition. Then the bulls of Gregory IX obliged all Catholics to follow the decision of the meeting in Toulouse. In Spain, Italy, Portugal and other European countries, the organs of the Inquisition began to lie down.

Since the 15th century The era of printing begins in Europe. This discovery belongs to Johannes Gutenberg. Now the church has become the most important censor. They began to draw up a list of banned books. And it is constantly updated.

The most cruel and bloodthirsty Inquisition was the Spanish. Thomas de Torquemada became the most ferocious inquisitor. It is from his biography that the history of the medieval Inquisition is formed. His personality is very interesting for historians and psychologists. He first became the personal confessor of Queen Isabella, and then became the most important inquisitor in Spain.

It was at Thomas’s instigation that all types of inquisitorial torture took shape. He was always afraid for his life, although he died a natural death. No one ever encroached on his life.

Tomas de Torquemada always had a poison neutralizer at his dinner table. He kept the antidote in rhinoceros horn on the dining room table. Thomas was always very afraid for his life. Even when he rode along the street, he had a solid guard of 50 horsemen and 200 infantrymen. It was at his suggestion that Queen Isabella expelled representatives of the Jewish nation from the country. And the fight against heresy took place around the clock.

The fight of the Inquisition against heretics

Heresy is the main infection of the Middle Ages, according to representatives of the clergy. The church played an important role in the life of the common man. It became the richest institution and owned many lands. The population always paid a tax in favor of the church - tithe.

The Church literally absorbed the politics and economics of European states. At the same time, she also issued indulgences for money - special letters for the remission of sins. This caused indignation among the population. That is why there are people who oppose some church dogmas. The people were simply outraged by the behavior of the church ministers. They behaved very immodestly and squandered money. They committed extortions and did not help the poor. Every day there were more and more believers who questioned the teachings of the church.

All those who disagreed were placed in the category of heretics, who were considered messengers of the devil. They were persecuted and then subjected to severe torture. And lastly they executed. Everything happened very quickly. Usually no investigation was carried out, immediately trial, torture and execution. Even when they passed a sentence, the judges did not know the name of the defendant; they were simply designated by numbers. The sentence was always the death penalty, and the judges always monitored the execution of the sentence.

Instruments of torture of the Inquisition

Many scientists and thinkers in the Middle Ages became victims of the Inquisition. This punitive body has developed a whole arsenal of instruments of torture. There were many ways to torture a victim. Here we will look at just a few tools. Of course, one can only be in complete shock at how many different instruments of torture the inquisitors developed. And they are simply terrible, as only a person was capable of such cruelty.

Here are a few such inventions:

“Interrogation chair” - this weapon was used in Germany until the middle of the 19th century. it was used during interrogations before trial. The chair was covered with thorns everywhere, and the prisoner was sat on it naked. When he moved a little, he felt severe pain, which brought him to agony. Sometimes, for greater effect, a fire was lit under the chair;
The rack is the most common torture device. It was a table, a person was laid on it, his limbs were fixed. And then they stretched it, so that the defendant experienced severe pain;
Hanging on a rack is also one of the most common types of torture. The hands were tied with a rope behind the back, and then the other end of the rope was thrown over a winch and the person was lifted up;
The “Inquisition Chair” is a stool with spikes, and there were also attachments for the victim’s limbs.
“Wheeling” - with the help of an iron wheel, all the bones of the victim were broken.

In the Middle Ages there was no concept of “amnesty”. Justice was not subject to anyone. No one could protect human rights. The executioner had freedom of choice during torture. Sometimes a brazier was used. The defendant was tied to the bars and fried like some kind of piece of meat. In this case, the victim, of course, admitted to anything. Sometimes even such torture led to the identification of new criminals.

Scientists Subject to Inquisition

Many bright minds died at the hands of the inquisitors. The most famous of them are, for example, Nicolaus Copernicus. He doubted the postulate that the Earth is the center of the universe. The scientist stated that the Earth, like the other planets, revolves around the Sun. His book was published after the scientist’s death; it was banned. Thus, Copernicus did not fall into the hands of the inquisitors. You could say he was lucky.

Giordano Bruno was less successful with his idea of the infinity of space; he was burned at the stake. Another scientist Galileo Galilei was almost burned to death. He created a telescope and explored cosmic bodies. He was forced to renounce his views. In 1992, the Vatican acquitted him.

The Inquisition became a black page in the history of Medieval Europe. This is cruelty and aggression towards people who were not at all to blame. The worst thing is that such an initiative came from representatives of the Christian religion. Having received unlimited power over believers, they took upon themselves the right to judge alleged traitors to religion. At the same time, they could only decide who to judge themselves.

Inquisition video

In the 4th century AD e. Emperor Constantine turned the persecuted Christian religion into an official one, accepted everywhere in the vast expanses of the Roman Empire. After this, the persecuted and oppressed supporters of Christianity themselves began to reject and persecute their enemies, attributing to them unorthodox, non-generally accepted beliefs. At the same time, the Roman bishops developed a system of views and concepts, which later became the basis of Catholicism. Everything that did not fall under this system began to be despised, and later cruelly persecuted. People who disagreed with generally accepted religious views were called heretics, and the teachings themselves began to be called heresies.

Social causes of heresies

The emergence of heresies in Christianity is usually associated with the social and ideological changes that arose in the lives of Christians during the period of persecution. The poorest segments of the population sought reconciliation and equality in the new religion. Therefore, the gradual process of enriching the clergy, strengthening the administrative principle, and apostasy during the period of persecution could not but cause condemnation from ordinary believers. The ideals of a modest and simple early Christian life continued to live in the poorest segments of the population. The contradictory moods of the masses, varied interpretations of Christian teaching and general dissatisfaction with the well-fed life of the higher clergy gave impetus to the emergence and spread of ideas preached by heretics, with whom the Catholic Church waged a long and bloody struggle.

Council of Nicaea

In 313, he issued the Act of Tolerance, according to which all citizens were granted freedom of religion. This document, later called the Edict of Milan, essentially designated Christianity as a full-fledged religion. After this, in 325, it took place in Nicaea, where the word “heresy” was used for the first time. The first heretic was Bishop Arius, who until then was considered one of the pillars of Christianity. Arius preached the creation, the secondary nature of Jesus Christ in comparison with God. Orthodox was the equality between God and Jesus Christ, which later formed the basis of the dogma of the Trinity. Arius and his followers, called Arians, became the first bearers of the ideas that the heretics preached.

Centuries without heretics

In 384, Priscillian was executed, the last of those officially condemned for his faith in the Roman Empire. But the political vision and methods of strengthening power left as a legacy by this powerful state were accepted and actively applied by the Catholic Church. For centuries, Catholicism did not pay attention to the discrepancies in the New Testament, but actively converted European peoples to Christianity. And only after the establishment of the Carolingian empire - that is, with the strengthening of secular power, at the turn of the millennium, Catholicism became a generally accepted religion, and the word “heresy” reappeared in the chronicles and annals of that time.

Causes

Monks who lived at the beginning of the second millennium often described the healing abilities of holy relics and various miracles happening to believers. In these same records there is also an extremely disapproving mention of those who treated holy relics with ridicule; perhaps the first heretics were those people who did not recognize “holy miracles.” These ridicule resulted in protests that took place in the name of the Gospel - the Gospel of meekness, justice, poverty and humility, the Gospel of the first Christians and the apostles. The views that the heretics preached were based on evangelical concepts, which, in their opinion, reflected the very essence of Christianity.

The beginning of the persecution

According to medieval annals and chronicles, those who were called heretics denied the authority of the Councils, refused to baptize children, and did not recognize the sacraments of marriage and confession. The first example of how the church fought against heretics that reached historians dates back to 1022. The sentences of the dissidents burned in Orleans conveyed to posterity the essence of what the heretics preached. These people did not recognize the sacrament of communion, baptism was performed with one laying on of hands, and they denied the cult of the Crucifixion. It cannot be assumed that heretics came from low strata of the population. On the contrary, the first victims of the fires were educated confessors of that time, using theology to justify their dissent.

The execution in Orleans opened the way to the most severe repressions. The fight against heretics lit fires in Aquitaine and Toulouse. Entire communities of other faiths were brought to the bishops, who appeared before church courts with the Bible in their hands, proving and explaining with quotations from the Holy Scriptures the correctness of what the heretics preached. How it fought against heretics is clear from the verdicts of church judges. The condemned were sent to the stake in their entirety, which spared neither children nor the elderly. Bonfires in Europe are a vivid example of how the church fought against heretics.

In the 12th century, fires began to burn in the Rhineland. There were so many heretics that the monk Everwin de Steinfeld requested help from the Cistercian monk Bernard, who had a reputation for consistent and cruel persecution of infidels. After large-scale pogroms and raids, fires burned in Cologne. Judicial investigations and sentences of dissidents were no longer a set of unfounded accusations of witchcraft and debauchery, but contained clear points of disagreement between heretics and orthodox church concepts. The convicted and sentenced “apostles of Satan” accepted their death so steadfastly that they caused concern and murmurs from the crowd present at the burning.

Pockets of heresy

Despite the fierce repression of the church, pockets of heresy arose throughout Europe. The popular concept of dualism, as the struggle between good and evil, found a second wind in heretical movements. The principle of dualism was that the world was created not by God, but by the rebel angel Lucifer, which is why there is so much evil, hunger, death and disease in it. At the end of the 12th century, dualism was considered one of the most serious heresies. The concept of the battle between good and evil, angel and dragon, was widespread in the world, but the church began to fight this idea much later. This was explained by the fact that in the 12th century, royal and church power strengthened in Europe, life became relatively stabilized, and the principle of dualism - struggle - became unnecessary and even dangerous. The power and might of God, and therefore the Church, is what the heretics opposed, and what was dangerous for the strengthening of Catholicism.

Spread of heresies

In the 12th century, the lands of Southern Europe were considered the main centers of heresies. Communities were built in the image and likeness of Catholic churches, but, unlike the orthodox clergy, women were also given a place in the management of the church. Heretics in the Middle Ages were called “good men” and “good women.” Later historians began to call them Cathars. This name comes from the Middle Ages, the word cattier is translated as a sorcerer who worships a cat.

It is known that the Cathars had their own church institutions, held their own councils, and attracted more and more adherents to their ranks. If France and Germany destroyed dissent in the bud, then in Italy and Languedoc the Cathars expanded and strengthened their influence. Many noble families of that time accepted the new faith and provided food and shelter to their persecuted coreligionists and spread the teachings that the heretics preached.

How the Catholic Church fought heretics

At the beginning of the 13th century. ascended the papal throne whose goal was to unite the entire European world and return the southern European lands to the monastery of the church. After a series of failures, the Catholic Church, having assumed full powers to eradicate heresies and entered into an alliance with the king of France, led a crusade against dissidents. Twenty years of incessant wars and mass burnings of people led to the complete capture of Languedoc and the introduction of the Catholic faith. But there remained entire families and communities of people who secretly preserved the customs of their ancestors and resisted the conquerors. It was with the goal of identifying and eradicating the rebellious that the Inquisition was created.

Inquisition

In 1233, the papacy created a special body that had the power to impose penance and punish the disobedient. The power of the Inquisition was transferred to the Dominicans and Franciscans, who brought a new sermon to the Southern lands, based on the dogmas of the Catholic Church. Instead of open armed terror, the Inquisition used denunciations and slander as a tool to identify and destroy the disobedient. Compared to the mass executions of the past, the Inquisition killed few, but it was all the more terrible to be in its hands. Simple repentants could get away with public repentance; for those who defended their right to faith, the sentence was the fire. Even the dead were not spared - their remains were exhumed and burned.

Thus, the Catholic Church and the heretics fought an unequal battle for the same faith, for the same God. The entire history of the formation of Catholicism is illuminated by the fires of those who died for their faith. The extermination of heretics served as further proof of how one powerful Church, in the name of Christ, destroyed another, weaker Church.

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Inquisition

1. Introduction

GRAND INQUISITOR

Additional Information

Inquisition.

Inquisition

Popular myths.

Popular facts.

The Holy Inquisition

History of the Inquisition

The fight of the Inquisition against heretics

Instruments of torture of the Inquisition

Scientists Subject to Inquisition

Inquisition video

Social causes of heresies

Council of Nicaea

Centuries without heretics

Causes

The beginning of the persecution

Pockets of heresy

Spread of heresies

How the Catholic Church fought heretics

Inquisition