Black soldiers of the Vatican

Jesuits(Order of the Jesuits) - the unofficial name of the “Society of Jesus” (lat. Societas Iesu listen)) - a religious order of the Roman Catholic Church, whose members take a vow of direct unconditional submission to the Pope. This monastic order was founded in 1534 in Paris by the Spanish nobleman Ignatius of Loyola and approved by Paul III. Members of the order, known as "Jesuits," have been called "the foot soldiers of the Pope" since the Protestant Reformation, in part because the order's founder, Ignatius of Loyola, was a soldier before becoming a monk and eventually a priest. The Jesuits were actively involved in science, education, upbringing of youth, and widely developed missionary activities. The motto of the order is the phrase “ Ad majorem Dei gloriam", which is translated from Latin as "To the greater glory of God."

Today the number of Jesuits is 19,216 people (2007 data), of which 13,491 are priests. There are about 4 thousand Jesuits in Asia, 3 thousand in the USA, and in total Jesuits work in 112 countries of the world, they serve in 1,536 parishes. The Order allows many Jesuits to lead a secular lifestyle.

Geographically, the Order is divided into “provinces” (in some countries where there are many Jesuits, there are several provinces; and vice versa, some provinces unite several countries), “regions” dependent on one or another province, and “independent regions”. Jesuits living in the territory of the former USSR, with the exception of the Baltic countries, belong to the Independent Russian Region.

Currently, the head (general) of the order is the Spaniard Adolfo Nicolas, who replaced Peter Hans Kolvenback. The main Curia of the order is located in Rome, in a historically significant complex of buildings, and includes the famous Church of the Most Holy Name of Jesus.

History of the order

Opposition to the Society of the Courts of the Great Catholic Monarchs of Europe (Spain, Portugal, France) forced Pope Clement XIV to abolish the order in 1773. The last general of the order was imprisoned in a Roman prison, where he died two years later.

Society in the 19th and 20th centuries

The abolition of the order lasted forty years. Colleges and missions were closed, various undertakings were stopped. The Jesuits were added to the parish clergy. However, for various reasons, the Society continued to exist in some countries: in China and India, where several missions remained, in Prussia and, above all, in Russia, where Catherine II refused to publish the papal decree.

The society was restored in 1814. Collegiums are experiencing a new flourishing. In the context of the “industrial revolution”, intensive work is being carried out in the field of technical education. When lay movements emerged at the end of the 19th century, the Jesuits took part in their leadership.

Intellectual activity continues, among other things, new periodicals are created. It is necessary, in particular, to note the French magazine “Etudes”, founded in the city. Ivan-Xavier Gagarin. Centers for social research are being created to study new social phenomena and influence them. The organization Action Populaire was created in the city in order to promote changes in social and international structures and help the working and peasant masses in their collective development. Many Jesuits are also involved in basic research in the natural sciences, which experienced their rise in the 20th century. Of these scientists, the most famous is paleontologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin.

Jesuits also work in the world of mass communication. They have been working on Vatican Radio from the time of its founding to the present day (in particular, in the Russian section).

The Second World War became a transition period for the Society, as well as for the whole world. In the post-war period, new beginnings arise. The Jesuits are involved in creating a "work mission": priests work in the factory to share the conditions in which the workers live and make the Church present where there was none.

Theological research is developing. The French Jesuits study the theology of the Fathers of the Church and undertake the first scientific edition of the Greek and Latin patristic writings, which replaces the old edition of Father Minh: this is a collection of Christian Sources. Work on it continues today. Other theologians become famous in connection with the Second Vatican Council: Fr. Karl Rahner in Germany, Fr. Bernard Lonergan, who taught in Toronto and Rome.

The ban on the activities of the Jesuits lasted until the fall of the monarchy in March 1917.

The Soviet government and its ideology treated the Jesuits extremely negatively, presenting them as some kind of immoral spy service of the Catholic Church. In particular, they attributed the principle “The end justifies the means” (in fact, the saying belongs to Niccolo Machiavelli).

Famous Jesuits

• St. Ignatius de Loyola (1491-1556) - founder of the order.
• St. Francis Xavier (1506-1552) - missionary and preacher, preached in Asia - from Goa and Ceylon to Japan.
• Baltasar Gracian y Morales (1600-1658) - famous Spanish writer and thinker.
• Antonio Possevino (1534-1611) - papal legate, visited Russia.
• Jose de Acosta (1539-1600) - explorer of South America, first expressed the theory about the settlement of the American continent by settlers from Asia.
• St. Martyr John de Brebeuf (Jean de Brebeuf) - explorer of the North. America, tortured by Indians.
• Francisco Suarez (1548-1617) - Spanish theologian and philosopher.
• Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) - founder of the Jesuit mission in Beijing.
• Mansiu Ito (-) - head of the first Japanese embassy to Europe.
• Adam Kokhansky (-) - scientist, mathematician.
• Jean François Gerbillon (-) - French Jesuit scientist and missionary in China.
• Giovanni Saccheri (1667-1733) - scientist, mathematician.
• Lorenzo Ricci (1703-1775) - general of the Jesuit order; After the destruction of the order by Pope Clement XIV, he was imprisoned in the fortress of St. Angela, where he died. Known for his response to a proposal to reform the order: “Sint ut sunt aut non sint.”
• Michel Corrette (1707-1795) - French composer and organist.
• Martin Poczobut-Odlanitsky (1728-1810) - Belarusian and Lithuanian educator, astronomer, mathematician, rector of the Main Vilnius School (1780-1803).
• Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-1889) - English poet.
• Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955) - French theologian, philosopher, paleontologist.

Descartes, Corneille, Moliere, Lope de Vega, J. Joyce and many other prominent writers and scientists were educated in Jesuit schools.

Jesuits in world literature

• Beranger - "Holy Fathers"
• Blasco Ibañez - "Jesuit Fathers"
• Stendhal "Red and Black" - paints a picture of the Jesuit school
• Dumas, Alexandre (father) - “The Vicomte de Bragelonne, or Ten Years After”
• Father d'Orgeval - novel "Angelique" from 13 volumes by Anne and Serge Golon
• James Joyce - the main character of the novel "A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man", Stephen Dedalus, studies at a Jesuit school
• Eugene Sue - "Ahasfer"

Jesuit anti-Semitism

According to the research of philosopher and historian Hannah Arendt, it was Jesuit influence that was responsible for the spread of anti-Semitism in Europe. For example, the Jesuit magazine Civiltà Cattolica, which was one of the most influential Catholic magazines, was at the same time “highly anti-Semitic.”

see also

Bibliography

• Marek Inglot SJ The Society of Jesus in the Russian Empire (1772-1820) and its role in the widespread restoration of the Order throughout the world - Moscow: Institute of Philosophy, Theology and History.
• Michelle Leroy The Myth of the Jesuits: From Beranger to Michelet - Moscow: Languages ​​of Slavic Culture, 2001.
• Heinrich Böhmer History of the Jesuit Order - Collection AST Publishing House, 2007
• Gabriel Monod On the History of the Society of Jesus - Collection Jesuit Order Fact and Fiction AST Publishing House, 2007

Jesuits(Order of the Jesuits) - the unofficial name of the “Society of Jesus” (lat. Societas Iesu listen)) - a religious order of the Roman Catholic Church, whose members take a vow of direct unconditional submission to the Pope. This monastic order was founded in 1534 in Paris by the Spanish nobleman Ignatius of Loyola and approved by Paul III. Members of the order, known as "Jesuits," have been called "the foot soldiers of the Pope" since the Protestant Reformation, in part because the order's founder, Ignatius of Loyola, was a soldier before becoming a monk and eventually a priest. The Jesuits were actively involved in science, education, upbringing of youth, and widely developed missionary activities. The motto of the order is the phrase “ Ad majorem Dei gloriam", which is translated from Latin as "To the greater glory of God."

Today the number of Jesuits is 19,216 people (2007 data), of which 13,491 are priests. There are about 4 thousand Jesuits in Asia, 3 thousand in the USA, and in total Jesuits work in 112 countries of the world, they serve in 1,536 parishes. The Order allows many Jesuits to lead a secular lifestyle.

Geographically, the Order is divided into “provinces” (in some countries where there are many Jesuits, there are several provinces; and vice versa, some provinces unite several countries), “regions” dependent on one or another province, and “independent regions”. Jesuits living in the territory of the former USSR, with the exception of the Baltic countries, belong to the Independent Russian Region.

Currently, the head (general) of the order is the Spaniard Adolfo Nicolas, who replaced Peter Hans Kolvenback. The main Curia of the order is located in Rome, in a historically significant complex of buildings, and includes the famous Church of the Most Holy Name of Jesus.

History of the order

Opposition to the Society of the Courts of the Great Catholic Monarchs of Europe (Spain, Portugal, France) forced Pope Clement XIV to abolish the order in 1773. The last general of the order was imprisoned in a Roman prison, where he died two years later.

Society in the 19th and 20th centuries

The abolition of the order lasted forty years. Colleges and missions were closed, various undertakings were stopped. The Jesuits were added to the parish clergy. However, for various reasons, the Society continued to exist in some countries: in China and India, where several missions remained, in Prussia and, above all, in Russia, where Catherine II refused to publish the papal decree.

The society was restored in 1814. Collegiums are experiencing a new flourishing. In the context of the “industrial revolution”, intensive work is being carried out in the field of technical education. When lay movements emerged at the end of the 19th century, the Jesuits took part in their leadership.

Intellectual activity continues, among other things, new periodicals are created. It is necessary, in particular, to note the French magazine “Etudes”, founded in the city. Ivan-Xavier Gagarin. Centers for social research are being created to study new social phenomena and influence them. The organization Action Populaire was created in the city in order to promote changes in social and international structures and help the working and peasant masses in their collective development. Many Jesuits are also involved in basic research in the natural sciences, which experienced their rise in the 20th century. Of these scientists, the most famous is paleontologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin.

Jesuits also work in the world of mass communication. They have been working on Vatican Radio from the time of its founding to the present day (in particular, in the Russian section).

The Second World War became a transition period for the Society, as well as for the whole world. In the post-war period, new beginnings arise. The Jesuits are involved in creating a "work mission": priests work in the factory to share the conditions in which the workers live and make the Church present where there was none.

Theological research is developing. The French Jesuits study the theology of the Fathers of the Church and undertake the first scientific edition of the Greek and Latin patristic writings, which replaces the old edition of Father Minh: this is a collection of Christian Sources. Work on it continues today. Other theologians become famous in connection with the Second Vatican Council: Fr. Karl Rahner in Germany, Fr. Bernard Lonergan, who taught in Toronto and Rome.

The ban on the activities of the Jesuits lasted until the fall of the monarchy in March 1917.

The Soviet government and its ideology treated the Jesuits extremely negatively, presenting them as some kind of immoral spy service of the Catholic Church. In particular, they attributed the principle “The end justifies the means” (in fact, the saying belongs to Niccolo Machiavelli).

Famous Jesuits

• St. Ignatius de Loyola (1491-1556) - founder of the order.
• St. Francis Xavier (1506-1552) - missionary and preacher, preached in Asia - from Goa and Ceylon to Japan.
• Baltasar Gracian y Morales (1600-1658) - famous Spanish writer and thinker.
• Antonio Possevino (1534-1611) - papal legate, visited Russia.
• Jose de Acosta (1539-1600) - explorer of South America, first expressed the theory about the settlement of the American continent by settlers from Asia.
• St. Martyr John de Brebeuf (Jean de Brebeuf) - explorer of the North. America, tortured by Indians.
• Francisco Suarez (1548-1617) - Spanish theologian and philosopher.
• Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) - founder of the Jesuit mission in Beijing.
• Mansiu Ito (-) - head of the first Japanese embassy to Europe.
• Adam Kokhansky (-) - scientist, mathematician.
• Jean François Gerbillon (-) - French Jesuit scientist and missionary in China.
• Giovanni Saccheri (1667-1733) - scientist, mathematician.
• Lorenzo Ricci (1703-1775) - general of the Jesuit order; After the destruction of the order by Pope Clement XIV, he was imprisoned in the fortress of St. Angela, where he died. Known for his response to a proposal to reform the order: “Sint ut sunt aut non sint.”
• Michel Corrette (1707-1795) - French composer and organist.
• Martin Poczobut-Odlanitsky (1728-1810) - Belarusian and Lithuanian educator, astronomer, mathematician, rector of the Main Vilnius School (1780-1803).
• Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-1889) - English poet.
• Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955) - French theologian, philosopher, paleontologist.

Descartes, Corneille, Moliere, Lope de Vega, J. Joyce and many other prominent writers and scientists were educated in Jesuit schools.

Jesuits in world literature

• Beranger - "Holy Fathers"
• Blasco Ibañez - "Jesuit Fathers"
• Stendhal "Red and Black" - paints a picture of the Jesuit school
• Dumas, Alexandre (father) - “The Vicomte de Bragelonne, or Ten Years After”
• Father d'Orgeval - novel "Angelique" from 13 volumes by Anne and Serge Golon
• James Joyce - the main character of the novel "A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man", Stephen Dedalus, studies at a Jesuit school
• Eugene Sue - "Ahasfer"

Jesuit anti-Semitism

According to the research of philosopher and historian Hannah Arendt, it was Jesuit influence that was responsible for the spread of anti-Semitism in Europe. For example, the Jesuit magazine Civiltà Cattolica, which was one of the most influential Catholic magazines, was at the same time “highly anti-Semitic.”

see also

Bibliography

• Marek Inglot SJ The Society of Jesus in the Russian Empire (1772-1820) and its role in the widespread restoration of the Order throughout the world - Moscow: Institute of Philosophy, Theology and History.
• Michelle Leroy The Myth of the Jesuits: From Beranger to Michelet - Moscow: Languages ​​of Slavic Culture, 2001.
• Heinrich Böhmer History of the Jesuit Order - Collection AST Publishing House, 2007
• Gabriel Monod On the History of the Society of Jesus - Collection Jesuit Order Fact and Fiction AST Publishing House, 2007

For a long time now, the word “Jesuit” in Russian has acquired distinctly negative connotations. Many factors contributed to this. However, it is worth figuring out who the Jesuits really are.

Unlike Orthodoxy, in Catholicism there is a whole scattering of monastic orders. This tradition comes from the Middle Ages and does not at all imply the imperfection of the monastic organization in the West. Each of the orders is, to one degree or another, “responsible” for a separate sphere of church activity.

Of the modern orders, the Franciscans, Dominicans and Jesuits have the greatest authority. While the first two orders devote their concerns primarily to charity and theological research, respectively, the Jesuit colleges still remain perhaps the best educational centers in the world.

The founder of the Society of Jesus (this is the formal name of the Jesuit Order), Saint Ignatius of Loyola, was determined to devote his life to God and the Church after he was seriously wounded and almost died in 1521, defending the fortress of Pamplona from French troops. Doctors, who had long fought for Loyola’s life, soon recognized the futility of further treatment and urged him to confess before his death.

After confession and unction, Layola suddenly felt better, and he asked to bring him chivalric novels, which, however, were not in the family castle, but in the family library only “The Life of Jesus Christ” by a Catholic monk and one of the volumes of “Lives” were found. After this, Loyola's fate was sealed.

After some time, the young man decided to begin studying science. To do this, he arrived in one of the centers of European education - Paris. There he gradually mastered classical languages, philosophy, natural sciences and, finally, theology. During the 6 years he spent in Paris, Ignatius Loyola became close to six young men: Peter Lefebvre, Francis Xavier, Jacob Lainez, Alfonso Salmeron, Nicholas Bobadilla and Simon Rodriguez.

August 15, 1534 During the mass in the Church of St. Dionysius, they solemnly took vows of chastity, non-covetousness and missionary work in the Holy Land. From this day the Society of Jesus began. In 1537 all seven founders of the order were ordained priests. Due to the outbreak of the war between Venice and Turkey, they could not go to the Holy Land and went to Rome.

There, priests were given the opportunity to teach theology at the University of Rome. In 1538 Loyola at Christmas was given the great honor of celebrating Mass in one of the main Roman churches - Santa Maria Maggiore. However, the young people wanted to be more involved in missionary activities, and then they decided to officially create a new monastic order.
September 27, 1540 Pope Paul III formalized the creation of the order with a special bull “Regimni militantis ecclesiae”.

The Society of Jesus arose at an extremely difficult moment for the Catholic Church. After Luther spoke out against the abuses of the Catholic clergy, the power of the Church was shaken. First, the “Lutheran heresy” penetrated the German lands, and then other European states. Given the growing authority of the new dogmatic teaching, Rome needed support, both within Italy and outside its borders. The new order could and ultimately became such a support at such a difficult moment.

The Jesuit charter required the taking of four vows instead of the usual three for other orders: poverty, obedience, chastity and obedience to the pope in “matters of missions,” that is, missionary work. Loyola and his associates created a clear structure in which juniors unquestioningly obeyed seniors. At the head of the entire order was a lifelong general, nicknamed the “black pope,” who reported only directly to the head of the Church.

The main goal of the order was to preserve and strengthen Catholicism. To implement it, the Jesuits chose two paths: they immediately took one of the leading places in the education system in Europe; and on the other hand, they carried out active missionary activities.

For the efficiency of the order, its members were even allowed to live in the world, hiding their affiliation with monks, and thus preach the truths of Catholicism among ordinary people. And as the religious struggle between the followers of Luther and the Catholics became increasingly intense, the Jesuits created their own system of moral imperatives, according to which certain facts were allowed to be interpreted taking into account the prevailing circumstances. Hence, in our minds, a strong connection arose between “Jesuit” and “casuistry.”

Indeed, the Jesuits were distinguished by an amazing resourcefulness of mind and a desire not so much to show the whole in the issue being studied, but to break it down into particulars, thereby avoiding interpretations unfavorable to themselves and somewhat confusing their opponent. However, the reasons for this policy are clear: in the conditions of a real war for the souls of believers, this approach made it possible to maintain the strong position of the Papal Throne. And the Jesuit colleges, which exist in our time, still remain an example of the highest quality of spiritual upbringing and education. Moreover, their graduates included not only prominent church figures, but also secular people, among whom it is enough to name Descartes or James Joyce.

And although an inquisitive mind will discover shortcomings in the activities of the Jesuits, such as excessive and unconditional devotion to the general of the order and the pope (although this is the basis of all Western monasticism), cunning and intolerance towards the ever-increasing number of heresies, to combat which the order was created, deny the contribution of the Society of Jesus into the treasury of European history and culture would be, to say the least, imprudent. After all, one way or another, for religious consciousness there is nothing more important than preserving the pristineness and truth of one’s teaching.

Hovhannes Hakobyan,
historian, graduate student at Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosova

The Jesuit Order (officially the Society of Jesus) was founded in 1536 in Paris by the Spanish fanatic Ignatius of Loyola, who, according to Diderot, devoted his youth to military craft and love pleasures. In 1540, the order was legalized by Pope Paul III.
The order was created on a military model. Its members considered themselves soldiers, Christ's army, and their organization an army. Iron discipline and absolute obedience to superiors were considered the highest virtue of the Jesuits. The end justifies the means - this was the principle followed by the members of the Society of Jesus. Unlike other monastic orders, the Jesuit was not bound by strict monastic rules. The sons of Loyola lived in peace, among the population.

The Society of Jesus is the order most closely associated with the papal throne, whose activities are directly controlled and directed by the Pope. Formally, all other monastic orders depend on the papal throne. However, in the past, they gravitated more towards the local hierarchy and local rulers than towards the distant head of the Catholic Church. Another thing is the Jesuits, who swear allegiance to the Pope, his own soldiers, who directly and unquestioningly carry out his orders.
Jesuits were freed from burdensome church services and the mandatory wearing of monastic robes. Moreover, unlike members of other monastic orders, they did not apply for the highest church positions. Only in exceptional cases were they appointed cardinals, bishops, and the path to the papal tiara was generally prohibited for them. The general of the Jesuit order could not expect to turn from a black priest into a white one. Thus, the Jesuits were allowed everything except direct control of the church. They could only rule through others, they could only be a secret spring, a secret power behind the throne.

The largest possession of the Jesuits in Spanish America was the reductions in Paraguay. The Jesuits came to Paraguay at the beginning of the 17th century. There were no gems in this area, no developed Indian societies, so it did not attract much attention from the Spaniards during the Conquest. But the favorable climate, fertile land, allowing for two harvests a year, large masses of Indian population, mainly peace-loving Guarani tribes, made this area very promising for the development of agriculture, especially cattle breeding. The Jesuits were also attracted by the fact that there were few Spanish settlers here and the area was located away from major colonial centers. The closest of them, Asuncion and Buenos Aires, were at the beginning of the 17th century just outposts guarding the approaches to the riches of Peru from the Atlantic Ocean. To the east of the Asuncion - Buenos Aires line lay no man's lands with unknown riches, stretching all the way to the Portuguese possessions, or rather to Sao Paulo. In this huge triangle - Asuncion - Buenos Aires - Sao Paulo, which could accommodate Spain, Portugal and France taken together, lie the Jesuit possessions, the Jesuit republic or state, as they are often called in literature.
These possessions were under the jurisdiction of the Jesuit Paraguayan province (the Jesuit Order was divided into provinces, which usually included several countries). In addition to Paraguay, the Jesuits also had the Mexican and Peruvian provinces in colonial America, with a center in Asuncion, the influence of which extended to what is now Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and the adjacent border zones of Highland Peru (Bolivia) and southern Brazil.

The Jesuits created their first settlements in the region of Guaira on the left bank of the river. Paraguay, but after successful raids by the Brazilian bandeirantes - slave hunters from Sao Paulo (they were also called Mamelukes) - they were forced to leave Guaira and move with their Indian charges to the south. In the 18th century, the Paraguayan Jesuit missions had 30 reductions in the area of ​​the upper and middle reaches of the Parana and Paraguay rivers, between the 25th and 32nd meridians, at the junction of the current republics of Paraguay, Brazil and Argentina. 8 reductions were located in what is now Paraguay, 15 in Argentina, 7 in Brazil, in what is now the state of Rio Grande do Sul. The largest reduction - Yapeyu - numbered about 8 thousand inhabitants, the smallest - 250, and on average about 3 thousand people lived in the reduction. Currently, these areas are called in Paraguay: Misiones District, in Argentina - the national territory of Misiones, in Brazil - the Mission District (Сmarca de missoes).
In October 1611, the Jesuits received from the Spanish crown a monopoly on the establishment of missions in Paraguay, and the Indians they converted to Christianity were exempted from paying taxes to the crown for 10 years. The Spanish authorities took this step for various reasons: firstly, the area was inaccessible and poor in valuable minerals; secondly, it was inhabited by freedom-loving tribes, the conquest of which would have required great resources and efforts on the part of the colonial authorities; thirdly, the territory where the Jesuits settled adjoined Brazil, which at that time was (thanks to the annexation of Portugal to Spain in 1580) as if in the orbit of Spanish influence, so the Portuguese did not resist the advance of the Jesuits towards their territory - Brazil.

The Jesuits adapted the Catholic religion to Indian beliefs, acting through tamed Indians who acted as their agitators and propagandists, and enlisted the support of the Indian cacique chiefs, through whom they controlled the reductions. The caciques received their share from the exploitation of Indian workers who were in the position of serfs. The product of their labor on God's field (that was the name of the land that belonged to the church) and in the workshops was appropriated by the Jesuits, who acted as landowners and entrepreneurs. Their wards did not enjoy freedom of movement, could not change jobs, or choose a wife without the prior consent of the Jesuit mentor. For disobedience, the Reduction Indians were subjected to corporal punishment.

The reductions in the descriptions of some Jesuits look like either a kindergarten or an almshouse. The Jesuits, it turns out, did nothing but increase the spiritual and physical benefits of their charges: they taught them reading and writing, music, crafts, the art of war, and took care of their health, rest, and soul. However, upon closer examination of the system established by the Jesuits in reductions, the sunny picture of Guarani life dims, black spots appear very clearly on it. All authors, including the Jesuits, agree that the life of the Indians in the reductions was regulated to the limit, including marriages, which took place at the sound of a bell at 11 pm; The Indians worked from dawn to sunset, the products of their labor were appropriated by the Jesuits. The Guarani lived in poverty, unsanitary conditions, ate poorly, walked barefoot, and died from various epidemics. The Jesuits carried out trials and reprisals against them, punishing them with whips for the slightest violation of the established order. The Jesuits lived in beautiful buildings; the churches built by the Indians sparkled with decorations made of gold, silver and precious stones. The labor of the Indians brought enormous benefits to the order. The Jesuits supplied the international market with large quantities of erba mate (Paraguayan tea), cotton, leather, tanning extract, wax, tobacco, grain and other products obtained as a result of Indian labor.
Access to the reduction depended on the will of the Jesuit authorities, who could deny entry to everyone except the highest clergy and representatives of the colonial administration. Finally, a significant difference between the Jesuit possessions in Paraguay and other missions was the presence of Guarani Indian troops in the reductions. These troops were created and armed with the permission of the Spanish crown after the separation of Portugal from Spain in 1640. Their task was to protect the eastern border from attacks by the Brazilians. Formally they were at the disposal of the colonial authorities, but in reality they were commanded by the Jesuit fathers.

In 1740, the Jesuits were preparing to celebrate their anniversary - the 200th anniversary of the existence of the order. In this regard, General of the Order Retz sent a circular to all provincials with instructions not to make a fuss about the anniversary and to celebrate it strictly in the family circle, given the seriousness of the situation. The general was right: clouds were gathering everywhere over the order; he was accused of a variety of intrigues, intrigues, and crimes. Now the members of the Society of Jesus were reviled not only in Protestant countries, but also in the most devout Catholic countries - Spain, Portugal and France, where real anti-Jesuit parties were formed, advocating the strengthening of royal power and enlightened governance. Opponents of the Jesuit order demanded, first of all, to limit its political and economic influence, prohibit it from interfering in state affairs, expel its representatives from court circles, and deprive the Jesuits of a monopoly on the influential position of royal confessor.

Things did not go well for the Jesuits in Brazil, which was developed by the Portuguese much later than the Spanish possessions. The first Jesuits arrived in Brazil in 1549. They immediately began to clash with the Portuguese settlers over control of the Indians. The Jesuits demanded guardianship over the Indians, while the settlers sought to convert the Indians into slavery. An Indian slave was much cheaper than an African slave.
On this basis, there were constant clashes between both sides, which more than once ended in the expulsion of the Jesuits. In 1640 they were expelled from the São Paulo region, and in 1669 from the northern provinces (Marañon and Paraná). The Jesuits in Brazil, as well as in other countries, not only did not object to the slavery of blacks and the slave trade, but they themselves actively participated in it. Their laments and protests against the settlers' attempts to enslave the Indians were explained not by moral reasons, but by the desire to benefit themselves from monopoly control over the natives.

But over time, clouds began to gather over the order. In 1764, France banned the Jesuit order. This decision was preceded by the scandalous case of the Jesuit abbot Lavalette, who robbed his partners in trade with Martinique. Parliament and a special royal commission that examined the activities of the order came to the conclusion that the subordination of the French Jesuits to a foreign general living in Rome was contrary to the laws of the kingdom and the duties of its subjects. The king, not wanting to take extreme measures, proposed that the papal throne appoint a vicar from among the French Jesuits - the local head of the order, responsible to French laws. The Papal throne rejected this proposal. Then on August 6, 1762, the Parliament of Paris, the highest court of the country, decided to ban the Jesuit order and expel its members from the country, simultaneously accusing them, according to the best traditions of the Inquisition, of sympathizing with Arianism, Nestorianism, Lutheranism, Calvinism and many other heresies, the spread of heretical defilements.
This decree was legalized by the king two years later, in 1764. The Pope, at a secret consistory, rejected the decision of the French king as illegal, but did not dare to publicly state this. The shame of the Jesuits did not end there. Their headquarters in Paris - a palace on the Rue de Pau de Fort - was taken over by the Freemasons, who in 1778 accepted into their ranks in this former holy of holies the Society of Jesus - Voltaire, a former student of the Jesuit fathers, and then their most merciless enemy.
The ban of the Jesuit order in France strengthened the position of its opponents in Spain. They began to wait for the right moment to follow the example of Paris and Lisbon.

The King of Spain, Charles III, initially favored the Jesuits, but his attitude towards the order soon changed. The former king of Naples, Charles III was a great admirer of Bishop Palafox, who once predicted that he would take the Spanish throne. When this prediction came true, Charles III, wishing to posthumously thank the prophetic bishop, asked the Pope to elevate him to the rank of blessed. The Pope categorically refused. Palafox, being the bishop of Puebla in Mexico, was known as an implacable enemy of the Jesuits. Naturally, the Jesuits, whose influence at the papal court was still significant, could not allow their enemy to be beatified.
The intrigues of the Jesuits and the pope's refusal to grant his request aroused the king's displeasure. It turned to anger when Charles III was informed that the Jesuits intended to overthrow him and place his brother Louis on the throne, that they were spreading rumors that the king’s father was Cardinal Alberoni, who served as an adviser at the Neapolitan court.

On March 23, 1766, a rebellion broke out in Madrid against the Neapolitan finance minister Leopoldo de Gregorio, Marquis of Schillaci, who had forbidden the Spaniards to wear wide-brimmed hats and long cloaks. The Jesuits took part in the riots. The procurator of the order, Isidoro Lopez, and the patron of the order, the former minister of Ensenada, called for the overthrow of the king. This overflowed the patience of Charles III, and he agreed to ban the order. An Extraordinary Royal Council was convened, which considered the report of ministers Rod and Campomanes on the activities of the Jesuits in the Spanish Empire.
The report was compiled on the basis of revealing documents of the former Jesuit Bernardo Ibáñez de Echavarri. Ibáñez, while in Buenos Aires in the 50s, during Valdeliros’s mission there, sided with the latter, for which he was expelled from the order. Returning to Spain, Ibáñez wrote a number of notes, including the essay The Jesuit Kingdom in Paraguay, exposing the subversive activities of the Jesuits in this province. Ibáñez's materials, after his death in 1762, were transferred to the government.

On April 2, 1767, the royal council issued a decree - the Pragmatic, the full name of the document - His Majesty's Pragmatic Order, expelling, according to the law, from these kingdoms, the members of the Society, confiscating their property, prohibiting the restoration at any time in the future, and enumerating other measures.
The King, it was said in the Pragmatics, decided to prohibit the Order of Loyola, to expel all its members from the Spanish possessions and to confiscate their property, prompted by the most serious reasons relating to my duties to ensure the subordination, tranquility and justice of my peoples, and for other urgent, just reasons. , necessary and obligatory reasons which are known only to my royal conscience.
Jesuits of all ranks and degrees, including novices, were expelled. All property of the order, whether movable or immovable, was confiscated for the benefit of the royal treasury. A Council was established for the management of former Jesuit property (Junta de temporaridades), the proceeds of which were to go to the needs of education and to pay pensions to expelled members of the order.
Expelled Jesuits who wished to leave the order and return to a secular state could ask the king to allow them to come to Spain, giving an oath under oath to the chairman of the Royal Council to cease all communication with members of the order or its general and not to act in their defense. Violation of the oath was equivalent to high treason. Former Jesuits were prohibited from church and teaching activities. Residents of Spain and its possessions, under pain of severe punishment, were not allowed to correspond with members of the order.

Both in Spain and in the overseas possessions, with the exception of Mexico, the operation to arrest the Jesuits and expel them went off without much hindrance. By resorting to tricks and subterfuge, local authorities managed to concentrate the Jesuits lured from the missions in designated places and arrest them.
This gave rise to the legend that the ship that delivered the royal Pragmatics to the colonies allegedly brought a secret notification from the Jesuit general to his charges about their impending deportation.
Anticipating that the Jesuits might mobilize fanatical supporters from the local population in their defense, the Viceroy of Mexico, the Marquis de Croix, in an address to the residents, demanded unquestioning submission to the royal Pragmatics and strictly forbade any discussion of it.
This menacing appeal had no effect on the supporters of the Jesuits, who rebelled in the cities of San Luis Potosi, Guanajuato and Valladolid (now the city of Morelia). It took an army of 5 thousand soldiers to extract the Jesuits from there. It took four months to quell the riots. The Spanish authorities mercilessly dealt with supporters of the Jesuits: 85 people were hanged, 664 were sentenced to hard labor, 110 were deported.

In the La Plata area, the order to expel the Jesuits could only be carried out a year after it was received. Only on August 22, 1768, the authorities were able to concentrate all (there were about 100 of them) Paraguayan Jesuits in Buenos Aires, from where they sailed to Spain on December 8 of the same year, arriving in Cadiz on April 7, 1769. In total, 2260 Jesuits were expelled from the American colonies, 2154 arrived at the port of Santa Maria, the rest died on the road. 562 Jesuits were expelled from Mexico, 437 from Paraguay, 413 from Peru, 315 from Chile, 226 from Quito, 201 from New Granada. Most of those expelled were Spaniards, but there were also several hundred Creoles; 239 Jesuits were natives of Italy, Germany, Austria and some other European countries. Thus ended the history of what was once one of the most powerful Catholic orders in Europe.

About the publication: During the epoch-making Havana meeting between the Pope and Patriarch Kirill, the parties radiated optimism and brotherly feelings. In the final declaration they signed, they condemned Western false values ​​and recorded the lack of intentions of Catholic proselytism on the canonical territory of Russian Orthodoxy.

Responding to the indignation of the Ukrainian Uniates, the papal nuncio to Ukraine, Archbishop Claudio Gugerotti, commented on the event in Havana: “I know how your people suffer in their own body due to difficulties of understanding. But please be patient. The parties cannot always say what they want to say... What people will remember is - it's their hug. And hugs became a sacred thing. But, you say, even Judas kissed Jesus Christ and then betrayed him. Sometimes we all become little traitors too.” At the same time, the Apostolic Nuncio said that in a few days he will go to the combat zone, to where people are suffering. “This is precisely the main purpose for which the Holy Father sent me here. I must be with those who suffer and help them on behalf of the Pope. And I will gladly leave others the opportunity to read, re-read various texts, declarations and find in them what they wish,”- said the Vatican representative in Ukraine, noting that some might call this trip an attempt at proselytism, “but that doesn’t interest me.”

The bombed Orthodox churches of Novorossiya and the tortured people, alas, are not a thing of the past. And during the Havana meeting of hierarchs in Ukraine, confessional confrontations continue, persecution of Orthodox believers by nationalists, instigated, among other things, by the Greek Catholic hierarchs, the seizure of Orthodox churches and the worsening of the schism - events that have repeatedly had historical precedents in these long-suffering lands, and were skillfully directed in the past by the Jesuit Order, to which the current Pope Francis belongs.

On the methods of influence and political technologies of the Jesuits in Russian lands, we present a rare relevant scientific article by Ph.D. Angela Vasilievna Papazova - historian,specialist in the activities of this order.

Published: article by A.V. Papazov “Implementation of the methods of the Jesuit order in the East Slavic region in the last third of the 16th - first half of the 17th centuries.” published in the scientific publication of the National Pedagogical University. M.P.Dragomanov and the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences: / Goal. ed. V.M. Vashkevich.- Kiev, 2009.- Special permit.- 368 pp.

Translation from Ukrainian by I.M. Berezin (with minor abbreviations).

IMPLEMENTATION OF METHODS OF THE JESUIT ORDER IN THE EAST SLAVIC REGION IN THE LAST THIRD OF THE XVI - FIRST HALF OF THE XVII CENTURIES.

The problem of the methods of activity of the Jesuit order in the East Slavic region in the last third of the 16th - first half of the 17th century. is an important component of studying the activities of the Catholic Church in the region in general and the Society in particular. The religious policy of the order (Society of Jesus) in the East Slavic region was carried out within the framework of the policy of the Roman Curia, with the permission and instructions of the Pope.

However, the order was not only an integral part of the policy of the curia, but also took the initiative in achieving goals. The Order primarily fulfilled its internal tasks and applied methods that went beyond the methods of the Catholic Church and religious activities. Let us consider the implementation of Jesuit methods of religious influence in the region.<...>At the beginning of the mission, when penetrating a certain area, the Jesuits used missionary methods to spread Catholicism: charity, preaching, religious debates and processions, performances, demonstration of “miracles,” participation in secular events, distribution of religious literature. For example, like in the Lutsk-Volyn diocese, where Bishop B. Matsievsky took them with him. The Jesuits left the bishop in the city, and they themselves read sermons, gave communion, baptized, and married. Then they talked with the village priests, set up portable altars, and left their priest to create a parish. Members of the order offered their services in the homes of the gentry, and when the family converted to Catholicism, they sought gifts for themselves.

In Lutsk they attracted 28 Orthodox believers into the fold of the Catholic Church, in Olga - 35, in Brest - 130, in Yanov nad Bug - 58. This often happened on church holidays, during misfortunes, Tatar attacks, epidemics. However, this method at the beginning of the order’s work did not give great results, because the traditions of Orthodoxy were strong and the order did not have sufficient experience in working in the region.

After the order was established in the region, missionary methods continued to be used. First of all, this was a sermon, which was distinguished by its special quality and preparation, depending on the specific conditions of use: audience, church holidays, political situation.

Petr Skarga

For example, the Jesuit Peter Skarga in his sermons treated non-Catholics as those who were lost in their beliefs and who needed to be saved.

All sermons were united by the fact that it was not important for the Jesuits to teach dogma, but to convince them of submission to the Catholic Church. The Jesuits held debates (on the streets, squares, in the houses of the gentry, churches, colleges) on any occasion (holiday, opening of a house, welcoming guests). The Jesuits almost always won them, and if they did not find opponents, they organized a dispute between two groups of members of the order. Officials, bishops, and kings were often present at the debates. For example, Prince K. Ostrogsky was present at the debate in 1599 in Vilna. In this method, the fact of achieving the truth was not so important as the fact of the victory of Catholicism. It did not matter whether those present understood the essence of the dispute; what was more important was publicity and the growth of the authority of the order and the Catholic Church.

The Jesuits were involved in charity work. They cared for the sick during epidemics and distributed food to the hungry during natural disasters. So, when an epidemic began in Nesvizh in 1625, the students left the college, but the Jesuits continued to care for the dying.

Members of the order successfully spread their methods of subjugating freedom to various segments of the population. The Jesuits often declared themselves miracle workers, healed the sick, and used figurines, things, and relics of saints. Fans of the Jesuits considered them saints and worshiped them. At the funeral of Meletiy Smotrytsky, a miracle allegedly happened - the hand of the deceased squeezed and released the papal bull. The Jesuit Cortiscius immediately spread this among the people of the region.

The Jesuits performed the duties of the Catholic clergy: they supervised book censorship and compiled the Index of Forbidden Books. Researcher I. Slivov argued that the Jesuits replaced the inquisitors in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Catholic Church trusted them with seminaries, printing houses, places of confessors and observers of the behavior of the clergy. Jesuits performed the duties of bishops in cities dangerous for the Catholic clergy, such as in Kyiv.

They tried to defeat their competitors (other Catholic orders, clergy) in religious disputes or to establish cooperation with them, or through them to achieve privileges (the right to preach in advantageous places, and the like). The order paid special attention to representatives of the churches of kings and officials. The Jesuits took on these responsibilities, or collaborated with the confessors of certain individuals, in order to have influence at the top of society. The Jesuits sought the support of the nuns because the latter helped create the collegiums.

Papal Legate to Russia, Jesuit Antonio Possevino -representative of the Vatican in Russia during the times of Ivan the Terrible and the Great Troubles

Every type of activity that required the presence of clergy (even minimal ones) was used by the order for its own purposes. Thus, A. Possevino considered the strengthening of trade of Venetian merchants, with whom Jesuits would be able to come there, as a way to “promote” the Catholic religion in the Muscovite kingdom. The order in any locality had to have a dedicated doctor who would ensure that Jesuit priests were invited to visit the rich sick or dying.

Behind the Secret Instructions, the Jesuits were not supporters of violent methods, however, they planned and applied them, but in most cases not personally. However, violence occurred in the activities of the order. The Jesuits preferred not to discredit themselves and the order in this way, so the main perpetrators of acts of violence were students of the Jesuit colleges. On October 20, 1645, Jesuit Ignatius Yelets staged a robbery (not for the first time, according to the source) in the village of Rutvenki, driving with a group of about forty horsemen up to 30 oxen.

A. Possevino approved the project of aggression of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against the Muscovite kingdom, but warned that the project should be kept secret. It was with the help of violent actions that the order carried out calendar reform, interrupting services in churches, forcing Ukrainians to adhere to the new calendar by force.

The Order used exaggeration to achieve its objectives. This is well illustrated by complaints from members of the order to the king or local authorities. For example, on September 9, 1643, the Jesuit Jan Filipovsky complained about all Polotsk Orthodox Christians for mocking the holy faces and damaging them. It is characteristic that the emphasis was placed precisely on the Orthodox religion of the townspeople and their universal participation in acts of vandalism.

If the order worked with the population as a missionary, then it used the power of state power against its ideological opponents, because one of its main methods was influence on the authorities and cooperation with them. The attitude of the Jesuits to power in the state is expressed by the statement of Peter Skarga: “The sheep follows the shepherd, and not the shepherd follows the sheep.” The order was a supporter of the monarchy. “Secret instructions” ordered to influence the kings with the help of confessors in order to encourage the plans of the kings (including military ones), indulge habits and hobbies, instill the necessary ideas, praise the order, and taught to use authorities to suppress speeches and uprisings. Members of the order had influence on the kings of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Jesuits achieved particular success in influencing Sigismund III (1587-1632). The king always helped the order in difficult situations. It was under him that the Union of Brest of 1596 was adopted, in the preparation and approval of which the order took an active part. Some researchers consider Sigismund's demand for the Moscow throne to be a Jesuit influence.

The king repeatedly used the Jesuits as spies and observers, for example, over the activities of Peter Sagaidachny and Job Boretsky. For example, the Jesuit J. Obornitsky followed the movement of the Cossacks in 1620 from the Fastov Collegium and wrote to Sigismund from there along the way. The Jesuits helped Sigismund III spread the Polish language and culture, because Polonization served as a means of enslaving non-believers and introducing Catholicism. The most striking influence of the Jesuits on the king was demonstrated by his contemporaries.

King Sigismund III

Cardinal and Archbishop B. Maciejowski wrote: “... many unpleasant events would not have happened if... Sigismund in governing the state was not guided by the judgments of the Jesuits.”

By influencing kings, the Jesuits influenced the activities of statesmen and government bodies. To do this, they used respect for feudal lords and officials (a ceremonial reception, congratulations, dedications, etc.), the promise of privileges, profitable positions, and the provision of these privileges to those who carried out a specific assignment for the order. “This is where the sources of the king’s delusions were,” wrote the chronicler Pavel Pisetsky. Condemning the words and actions of the Jesuits was considered sacrilege. Anyone who wanted to receive any privileges had to indulge the Jesuits and curry favor with them.” For the “Secret Instructions”, the Jesuits did not have to take upon themselves to petition the king for their assistants, but entrust this to the friends of the order, to use the tolerance of rich people for a successful outcome of court cases for the order. In 1621, the deputy of the crown court, Nikolai Czartoryski, defended the Jesuits from accusations. In gratitude, the Jesuits glorified him as a benefactor on the occasion of the centenary of the order.

The method of the order, designed for ambition and careerism, worked flawlessly. Thus, after the death (in 1597) of the Polotsk governor Nikolai Dorogostaisky, a Calvinist and open opponent of the Jesuits, his son Christopher did not inherit this position, as was customary. The new governor was the protege of the Jesuits - Andrei Sapega, who became a Catholic thanks to them. Janusz Radziwill did not receive the posts of Vilna voivode and Lithuanian chancellor because he was not a Catholic. Thanks to the care of the Jesuits, these positions went to Janusz’s enemy, Jan-Karl Chodkiewicz.

Jan-Karl Chodkiewicz

The Order even used the Sejm of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for its own purposes, taking part in the religious and political struggle not directly, but through the king and statesmen. Thus, in 1606, articles were presented at the Diet in which the Jesuits were accused of interfering in secular affairs, influencing the authorities, inciting uprisings, they proposed to remove them from the court, expel foreign Jesuits from the country, prohibit the founding of houses, force them to sell property, and stay and services limited to a few cities. In particular, there was a request to the king to remove A. Bobola from the court, as a devoted servant of the Jesuits. The Diet of 1607 authorized the reading of these articles, but did not accept them. Moreover, it was decided to restore some of the rights of the order, to provide the highest degree of inviolability for its houses. The techniques used by the order had characteristics depending on the denomination to which they were directed.

If at the beginning the order worked against Protestants, then later it focused on working with the Orthodox, as it achieved a weakening of the influence of Protestants in the region. The Order sought the conversion of Protestants to Catholicism, primarily the families of large feudal lords, for example, the family of the Calvinist Nicholas Radzivil the Black.

The order considered the Orthodox to be lost and not to blame for their error, because they were led along the wrong path. There were peculiarities in the methods applied to them, because Orthodoxy had a long history and cultural traditions. First of all, this feature manifested itself in the publication of polemical literature, with the help of which the Jesuits instilled in the educated layers of society ideas beneficial to the order and the Pope. For example, the idea of ​​union. In P. Skarga’s book “On the Unity of the Church of God,” the thesis is substantiated that Rus' (according to the author, the lands of Ukrainians and Belarusians) is following the “Greeks” only out of ignorance. In the Orthodox doctrine, the author points out 19 errors, paying attention to the depravity of the hierarchs.

The Order did not allow its opponents to unite against itself. On May 18, 1599, at a congress of Lutherans and Orthodox Christians against Catholics in Vilna, a confederation was created, the participants of which pledged to resist the Jesuits and the Polish government when they forced the Orthodox to convert to the union or Protestants to Catholicism. The Jesuits destroyed this union.

It was important for the order to attract large land magnates to Catholicism, because it was on their financial power that their influence on the population was based. The main thing in achieving this goal was to attract the families of Yuri Slutsky and Konstantin-Vasily Ostrozhsky to Catholicism.

Konstantin-Vasily Ostrozhsky (1526–1608) - famous Podolsk-Volyn prince, the richest and most influential magnate of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth of the 16th century, educator, defender of Orthodoxy. He founded monasteries, schools, libraries and printing houses. Ostrozhsky led the Russian party in the united Polish-Lithuanian state, defending the idea of ​​equal representation of Rus' in it.

The wife of Prince Yuri Slutsky, Catholic Ekaterina Tenchinskaya, with the assistance of the Jesuits, managed to influence her husband towards loyalty to the Catholic Church.

We see one of the most common methods of the order - influencing a person through friends and relatives. The main principle of the Jesuit method, which ensured that people were influenced to convert to Catholicism, was to do this at a young age and in a Catholic environment. In May 1579, Skarga reported to the pope that Princess Slutskaya agreed to send her sons to study at the Jesuit college. It is known that the Slutsky brothers studied in Europe. From Caligardi's letter to C. Borromean dated November 20, 1580, it is clear that Jan Slutsky became a Catholic and attracted someone else to Catholicism. His brother also subsequently converted to Catholicism. In 1593, Jan Siemion announced his desire to found a Jesuit academy in Lviv at his own expense.

The building of the Jesuit Collegium in Lviv - a higher educational institution that existed since 1608, on the basis of which the Lviv University was founded

The eldest son of K.K. Ostrozhsky Janusz was attracted by the Jesuits to Catholicism in Germany. Janusz's brother Konstantin fell under the influence of the Jesuits in his youth and secretly converted to Catholicism. Nuncio Bolognetti describes Prince Constantine's apostasy from Orthodoxy, emphasizing that the prince himself turned to him to save his soul.

The effectiveness of the Jesuit methodology is proven by the fact that it resulted in supporters of the order and representatives of the upper strata of society loyal to the Catholic Church. The Order attached great importance to its impact on women. The “Secret Instructions” suggested instilling in women a love for the order. The Order was interested in rich widows. Widows were encouraged to remain in their position. The Jesuits influenced Anna Kostko (the widow of Alexander Ostrozhsky), who, after the death of her husband, expelled Orthodox priests and imprisoned those who did not agree to convert to Catholicism. The Jesuit B. Herbest attracted E. Meletskaya to Catholicism, who helped convert her Calvinist husband Nikolai Meletsky, the Podolsk governor, to the Catholic Church. While P. Skarga, who addressed the governor directly, was almost thrown off the bridge. So, the order began work to attract the family to Catholicism from the female half.

The daughter of Alexander Ostrozhsky and Anna Kostko, Anna-Aloise surpassed her mother and all other women in submission to the Jesuits. It was the Jesuits who found Anne-Aloise a wealthy husband, Jan-Karl Chodkiewicz, who founded a college for the Jesuits in Crozy. Anna-Aloise was widowed early and never remarried. The Church of the Holy Trinity in Ostrog and the hospital were transferred to the order. The size of donations to the Jesuits speaks volumes about the enormous influence on Anna-Aloise: in addition to real estate (palaces, villages, farms, etc.) - 30,000 zlotys in 1624, and in 1630 - several more villages.

Anna-Aloisa Chodkiewicz-Ostrogskaya (1600–1654) - a Ruthenian, inspired by the Jesuits, persecuted Orthodoxy, brutally dealt with the Ostroh townspeople and became, in the words of the chronicler, a “persecutor.” She handed over the Orthodox Church in Turov to the Greek Catholics. She reburied the remains of her father, Prince Alexander Vasilyevich Ostrozhsky, who died in Orthodoxy, having baptized them according to the Latin rite. She died in January 1654 in one of her Greater Poland estates, fleeing from the Cossacks of Khmelnytsky. Read more

The Jesuit Order applied its methods in institutions of the Catholic Church, European universities, at the courts of monarchs, in the houses of feudal lords, in merchant offices, at diplomatic missions, in the construction of churches and other structures, in art workshops, on the theater stage and wherever it was necessary . The Order used both traditional methods and modern methods of influencing believers. The Jesuits used the methods of their competitors in the struggle for influence over the population. Like the humanists, they opened schools and academies, observatories, magazines, newspapers, and presented scientific achievements in the field of natural sciences and the humanities.

Thus, the methods of the Jesuit Order, depending on the method of influence, can be divided into several groups. Traditional religious and missionary methods: preaching, confession, charity, religious ceremonies and holidays, demonstration of miracles. Methods using violence. The following should be considered as the latest methods of psychological and ideological influence: theological debates according to the Jesuit scenario, the methods of I. Loyola’s “Spiritual Exercises” (psychological training), religious literary polemics. In a special group we highlight the methods of doing work by the Jesuits not directly, but by their assistants: supporters, representatives of government agencies and other persons.

The methods of activity of the Jesuit Order corresponded in level of development, moral standards, in the degree of use of violence and methods of activity of the Catholic Church and the contemporary governments of European states. However, the order approached the application of its methods selectively, which ensured the success of the Society in achieving its goals. The order constantly improved the methods and process of their application.

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