2.

3.

In the Introduction of the research work, the relevance of the chosen topic is substantiated, the object, subject of research and main problems are determined, the purpose and content of the tasks are formulated, and the novelty of the research (if any) is reported.

This chapter defines research methods and substantiates the theoretical and practical significance (if there is a practical part) of the work.

Structure of the Introduction of a research paper:

4. Historical background on the research problem

5. The main part of the research work
Searching for the necessary information and knowledge to conduct research.
Selection of ideas and options, their justification and analysis.
Selection of material and methods for conducting research.
Selection of equipment and organization of a workplace for research (if this is experience).
Description of the stages of the study.
Safety precautions when performing work (if this is experience).

6. Conclusion
(brief conclusions based on the results of the research work, assessment of the completeness of the solution to the assigned tasks)
It consistently presents the results obtained, determines their relationship with the general goal and specific tasks formulated in the introduction, and provides a self-assessment of the work done. In some cases, it is possible to indicate ways to continue researching a topic, as well as specific tasks to be solved.

7.
After the conclusion, it is customary to place a list of literature used in the research work. Each source included in it must be reflected in an explanatory note. Work that has not actually been used should not be included in this list.

8.
(diagrams, graphs, diagrams, photographs, tables, maps).
Auxiliary or additional materials that clutter up the main part of the work are placed in appendices. Each application must begin on a new sheet (page) with the word “Appendix” in the upper right corner and have a thematic heading. If there is more than one appendix in the work, they are numbered in Arabic numerals (without the No. sign), etc. the numbering of the pages on which appendices are given should be continuous and continue the general numbering of the main text. Its connection with applications is carried out through links that are used with the word “look” (see), enclosed together with the code in parentheses.
If you strictly adhere to the research plan, the work will meet all standards and requirements.

Brief description:

Sazonov V.F. Modern research methods in biology [Electronic resource] // Kinesiologist, 2009-2018: [website]. Update date: 02.22.2018..__.201_). Materials on modern research methods in biology, its branches and related disciplines.

Materials on modern research methods in biology, its branches and related disciplines

Drawing: Basic branches of biology.

Currently, biology is conventionally divided into two large groups of sciences.

Biology of organisms: sciences of plants (botany), animals (zoology), fungi (mycology), microorganisms (microbiology). These sciences study individual groups of living organisms, their internal and external structure, lifestyle, reproduction and development.

General biology: molecular level (molecular biology, biochemistry and molecular genetics), cellular (cytology), tissue (histology), organs and their systems (physiology, morphology and anatomy), populations and natural communities (ecology). In other words, general biology studies life at various levels.

Biology is closely related to other natural sciences. Thus, at the junction between biology and chemistry, biochemistry and molecular biology appeared, between biology and physics - biophysics, between biology and astronomy - space biology. Ecology, located at the intersection of biology and geography, is now often considered as an independent science.

Students' tasks for the training course Modern methods of biological research

1. Familiarization with a variety of research methods in various fields of biology.

Decision and reporting:
1) Writing a review educational essay on research methods in various fields of biology. Minimum requirements for the content of the abstract: description of 5 research methods, 1-2 pages (font 14, spacing 1.5, margins 3-2-2-2 cm) for each method.
2) Providing a report (preferably in the form of a presentation) on one of the modern methods of biology: volume 5±1 page.
Expected learning outcomes:
1) Superficial familiarity with a wide range of research methods in biology.
2) In-depth understanding of one of the research methods and transfer of this knowledge to the student group.

2. Conducting educational and scientific research from goal setting to conclusions using the necessary requirements for the preparation of a scientific research report.

Solution:
Obtaining primary data in laboratory classes and at home. It is allowed to conduct part of such research outside the classroom.

3. Introduction to general research methods in biology.

Solution:
Lecture course and independent work with sources of information. Report on the example of facts from the history of biology: volume 2±1 page.

4. Application of acquired knowledge, skills and abilities to conduct and formalize your own research in the form of research work, course work and/or final qualifying work.

Definition of concepts

Research methods - these are ways to achieve the goal of research work.

Scientific method is a set of techniques and operations used in constructing a system of scientific knowledge.

Scientific fact is the result of observations and experiments that establishes the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of objects.

Methodological basis scientific research is a set of methods of scientific knowledge used to achieve the goal of this research.

General scientific, experimental methods, methodological basis -.

Modern biology uses a combination of methodological approaches; it uses “the unity of descriptive-classifying and explanatory-nomothetic approaches; the unity of empirical research with the process of intensive theorization of biological knowledge, including its formalization, mathematization and axiomatization” [Yarilin A.A. “Cinderella” becomes a princess, or the place of biology in the hierarchy of sciences. // “Ecology and Life” No. 12, 2008. P. 4-11. P.11].

Objectives of research methods:

1. “Strengthening the natural cognitive abilities of man, as well as their expansion and continuation.”

2. “Communicative function”, i.e. mediation between the subject and object of research [Arshinov V.I. Synergetics as a phenomenon of post-non-classical science. M.: Institute of Philosophy RAS, 1999. 203 p. P.18].

General research methods in biology

Observation

Observation is the study of external signs and visible changes of an object over a certain period of time. For example, monitoring the growth and development of a seedling.

Observation is the starting point of any natural science research.

In biology this is especially noticeable, since the object of its study is man and the living nature that surrounds him. Already at school, in zoology, botany, and anatomy lessons, children are taught to conduct the simplest biological research by observing the growth and development of plants and animals, and the state of their own body.

Observation as a method of collecting information is chronologically the very first research technique that appeared in the arsenal of biology, or rather, its predecessor, natural history. And this is not surprising, since observation is based on human sensory abilities (sensation, perception, representation). Classical biology is primarily observational biology. But, nevertheless, this method has not lost its significance to this day.

Observations can be direct or indirect, they can be carried out with or without technical devices. So, an ornithologist sees a bird through binoculars and can hear it, or can record sounds with the device outside the range of the human ear. The histologist observes the fixed and stained tissue section using a microscope. And for a molecular biologist, an observation can be recording changes in the concentration of an enzyme in a test tube.

It is important to understand that scientific observation, unlike ordinary observation, is not simple, but purposeful the study of objects or phenomena: it is carried out to solve a given problem, and the observer’s attention should not be distracted. For example, if the task is to study the seasonal migrations of birds, then we will notice the timing of their appearance in nesting sites, and not anything else. So observation is selective allocation from reality certain part, in other words, aspect, and the inclusion of this part in the system being studied.

In observation, not only the accuracy, accuracy and activity of the observer is important, but also his impartiality, his knowledge and experience, and the correct choice of technical means. The formulation of the problem also presupposes the existence of an observation plan, i.e. their planning. [Kabakova D.V. Observation, description and experiment as the main methods of biology // Problems and prospects for the development of education: materials of the international. scientific conf. (Perm, April 2011).T. I. Perm: Mercury, 2011. pp. 16-19].

Descriptive method

Descriptive method - this is the recording of the observed external signs of the objects of study, highlighting the essential and discarding the unimportant. This method was at the origins of biology as a science, but its development would have been impossible without the use of other research methods.

Descriptive methods allow you to first describe and then analyze phenomena occurring in living nature, compare them, finding certain patterns, and also generalize, discover new species, classes, etc. Descriptive methods began to be used in ancient times, but today they have not lost their relevance and are widely used in botany, ethology, zoology, etc.

Comparative method

Comparative method is a study of the similarities and differences in the structure, course of life processes and behavior of various objects. For example, comparison of individuals of different sexes belonging to the same biological species.

Allows you to study research objects by comparing them with each other or with another object. Allows you to identify similarities and differences between living organisms, as well as their parts. The data obtained make it possible to combine the studied objects into groups based on similarities in structure and origin. Based on the comparative method, for example, a taxonomy of plants and animals is built. This method was also used to create the cell theory and to confirm the theory of evolution. Currently, it is used in almost all areas of biology.

This method was established in biology in the 18th century. and has proven to be very fruitful in solving many major problems. Using this method and in combination with the descriptive method, information was obtained that made it possible in the 18th century. lay the foundations for the taxonomy of plants and animals (C. Linnaeus), and in the 19th century. formulate the cell theory (M. Schleiden and T. Schwann) and the doctrine of the main types of development (K. Baer). The method was widely used in the 19th century. in substantiating the theory of evolution, as well as in restructuring a number of biological sciences on the basis of this theory. However, the use of this method was not accompanied by biology moving beyond the boundaries of descriptive science.
The comparative method is widely used in various biological sciences in our time. Comparison becomes especially valuable when it is impossible to define a concept. For example, an electron microscope often produces images whose true content is unknown in advance. Only comparing them with light microscopic images allows one to obtain the desired data.

Historical method

Allows you to identify patterns of formation and development of living systems, their structures and functions, and compare them with previously known facts. This method, in particular, was successfully used by Charles Darwin to build his evolutionary theory and contributed to the transformation of biology from a descriptive science into an explanatory science.

In the second half of the 19th century. Thanks to the works of Charles Darwin, the historical method put on a scientific basis the study of the patterns of the appearance and development of organisms, the formation of the structure and functions of organisms in time and space. With the introduction of this method, significant qualitative changes occurred in biology. The historical method transformed biology from a purely descriptive science into an explanatory science, which explains how diverse living systems arose and how they function. Currently, the historical method, or "historical approach" has become a universal approach to the study of life phenomena in all biological sciences.

Experimental method

Experiment - this is a verification of the correctness of the put forward hypothesis with the help of targeted influence on the object.

An experiment (experience) is an artificial creation under controlled conditions of a situation that helps to reveal the deeply hidden properties of living objects.

The experimental method of studying natural phenomena is associated with active influence on them by conducting experiments (experiments) under controlled conditions. This method allows you to study phenomena in isolation and achieve repeatability of results when reproducing the same conditions. The experiment provides a deeper insight into the essence of biological phenomena than other research methods. It was thanks to experiments that natural science in general and biology in particular reached the discovery of the basic laws of nature.
Experimental methods in biology serve not only to conduct experiments and obtain answers to questions of interest, but also to determine the correctness of the hypothesis formulated at the beginning of studying the material, as well as to correct it in the process of work. In the twentieth century, these research methods became leading in this science thanks to the advent of modern equipment for conducting experiments, such as, for example, a tomograph, electron microscope, etc. Currently, in experimental biology, biochemical techniques, X-ray diffraction analysis, chromatography, as well as the technique of ultrathin sections, various cultivation methods, and many others are widely used. Experimental methods combined with a systems approach have expanded the cognitive capabilities of biological science and opened new roads for the application of knowledge in almost all areas of human activity.

The question of experiment as one of the foundations in the knowledge of nature was raised back in the 17th century. English philosopher F. Bacon (1561-1626). His introduction to biology is associated with the works of V. Harvey in the 17th century. on the study of blood circulation. However, the experimental method widely entered biology only at the beginning of the 19th century, and through physiology, in which they began to use a large number of instrumental techniques that made it possible to register and quantitatively characterize the association of functions with structure. Thanks to the works of F. Magendie (1783-1855), G. Helmholtz (1821-1894), I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905), as well as the classics of the experiment C. Bernard (1813-1878) and I.P. Pavlova (1849-1936) physiology was probably the first of the biological sciences to become an experimental science.
Another direction in which the experimental method entered biology was the study of heredity and variability of organisms. Here the main merit belongs to G. Mendel, who, unlike his predecessors, used experiment not only to obtain data about the phenomena being studied, but also to test the hypothesis formulated on the basis of the data obtained. The work of G. Mendel was a classic example of the methodology of experimental science.

In substantiating the experimental method, the work carried out in microbiology by L. Pasteur (1822-1895), who first introduced the experiment to study fermentation and refute the theory of spontaneous generation of microorganisms, and then to develop vaccination against infectious diseases, was important. In the second half of the 19th century. Following L. Pasteur, significant contributions to the development and substantiation of the experimental method in microbiology were made by R. Koch (1843-1910), D. Lister (1827-1912), I.I. Mechnikov (1845-1916), D.I. Ivanovsky (1864-1920), S.N. Vinogradsky (1856-1890), M. Beyernik (1851-1931), etc. In the 19th century. biology has also been enriched by the creation of methodological foundations for modeling, which is also the highest form of experiment. The invention by L. Pasteur, R. Koch and other microbiologists of methods for infecting laboratory animals with pathogenic microorganisms and studying the pathogenesis of infectious diseases on them is a classic example of modeling that carried over into the 20th century. and supplemented in our time by modeling not only various diseases, but also various life processes, including the origin of life.
Starting, for example, from the 40s. XX century The experimental method in biology has undergone significant improvements due to an increase in the resolution of many biological techniques and the development of new experimental techniques. Thus, the resolution of genetic analysis and a number of immunological techniques was increased. Cultivation of somatic cells, isolation of biochemical mutants of microorganisms and somatic cells, etc. were introduced into research practice. The experimental method began to be widely enriched with methods of physics and chemistry, which turned out to be extremely valuable not only as independent methods, but also in combination with biological methods. For example, the structure and genetic role of DNA have been elucidated through the combined use of chemical methods for isolating DNA, chemical and physical methods for determining its primary and secondary structure, and biological methods (transformation and genetic analysis of bacteria) to prove its role as genetic material.
Currently, the experimental method is characterized by exceptional capabilities in the study of life phenomena. These capabilities are determined by the use of various types of microscopy, including electron microscopy with ultra-thin sectioning techniques, biochemical methods, high-resolution genetic analysis, immunological methods, a variety of cultivation methods and intravital observation in cell, tissue and organ cultures, embryo labeling, in vitro fertilization, the labeled atom method, X-ray diffraction analysis, ultracentrifugation, spectrophotometry, chromatography, electrophoresis, sequencing, design of biologically active recombinant DNA molecules, etc. The new quality inherent in the experimental method caused qualitative changes in modeling. Along with modeling at the organ level, modeling at the molecular and cellular levels is currently being developed.

Simulation method

Modeling is based on such a technique as analogy - this is an inference about the similarity of objects in a certain respect based on their similarity in a number of other respects.

Model - this is a simplified copy of an object, phenomenon or process, replacing them in certain aspects.

A model is something that is more convenient to work with, that is, something that is easier to see, hear, remember, record, process, transfer, inherit, and that is easier to experiment with, compared to the modeling object (prototype, original).
Karkishchenko N.N. Basics of biomodeling. - M.: VPK, 2005. - 608 p. P. 22.

Modeling - this is, accordingly, the creation of a simplified copy of an object, phenomenon or process.

Modeling:

1) creation of simplified copies of objects of knowledge;

2) study of objects of knowledge on their simplified copies.

Simulation method - this is the study of the properties of a certain object by studying the properties of another object (model), which is more convenient for solving research problems and is in a certain correspondence with the first object.

Modeling (in a broad sense) is the main method of research in all fields of knowledge. Modeling methods are used to assess the characteristics of complex systems and make scientifically based decisions in various areas of human activity. An existing or designed system can be effectively studied using mathematical models (analytical and simulation) in order to optimize the process of system functioning. The system model is implemented on modern computers, which in this case act as a tool for experimenting with the system model.

Modeling allows you to study any process or phenomenon, as well as directions of evolution, by recreating them in the form of a simpler object using modern technologies and equipment.

Modeling theory – the theory of replacing the original object with its model and studying the properties of the object on its model.
Modeling – a research method based on replacing the original object under study with its model and working with it (instead of the object).
Model (original object) (from the Latin modus - “measure”, “volume”, “image”) - an auxiliary object that reflects the most significant patterns for research, the essence, properties, features of the structure and functioning of the original object.
When people talk about modeling, they usually mean modeling a system.
System – a set of interconnected elements united to achieve a common goal, isolated from the environment and interacting with it as an integral whole and exhibiting basic systemic properties. The paper identifies 15 main system properties, which include: emergence (emergence); integrity; structure; integrity; subordination to the goal; hierarchy; infinity; ergacity; openness; irreversibility; unity of structural stability and instability; nonlinearity; potential multivariance of actual structures; criticality; unpredictability in a critical area.
When modeling systems, two approaches are used: classical (inductive), which developed historically first, and systemic, which has been developed recently.

Classic approach. Historically, the classical approach to studying an object and modeling a system was the first to emerge. The real object to be modeled is divided into subsystems, initial data (D) for modeling are selected and goals (T) are set, reflecting individual aspects of the modeling process. Based on a separate set of initial data, the goal of modeling a separate aspect of the system’s functioning is set; on the basis of this goal, a certain component (K) of the future model is formed. A set of components is combined into a model.
That. the components are summed up, each component solves its own problems and is isolated from other parts of the model. We apply the approach only to simple systems, where the relationships between components can be ignored. Two distinctive aspects of the classical approach can be noted: 1) there is a movement from the particular to the general when creating a model; 2) the created model (system) is formed by summing up its individual components and does not take into account the emergence of a new systemic effect.

Systematic approach – a methodological concept based on the desire to build a holistic picture of the object under study, taking into account the elements of the object that are important for the problem being solved, the connections between them and external connections with other objects and the environment. With the increasing complexity of modeling objects, the need arose to observe them from a higher level. In this case, the developer considers this system as some subsystem of a higher rank. For example, if the task is to design an enterprise automated control system, then from the perspective of a systems approach we must not forget that this system is an integral part of the integrated automated control system. The basis of the systems approach is the consideration of the system as an integrated whole, and this consideration during development begins with the main thing - the formulation of the purpose of operation. It is important for the systems approach to determine the structure of the system - the set of connections between the elements of the system, reflecting their interaction.

There are structural and functional approaches to studying the structure of a system and its properties.

At structural approach the composition of the selected elements of the system and the connections between them are revealed.

At functional approach Algorithms of system behavior are considered (functions - properties leading to achieving the goal).

Modeling types

1. Subject modeling , in which the model reproduces the geometric, physical, dynamic or functional characteristics of an object. For example, bridge model, dam model, wing model
airplane, etc.
2. Analog Modeling , in which the model and the original are described by a single mathematical relationship. An example is electrical models used to study mechanical, hydrodynamic and acoustic phenomena.
3. Iconic modeling , in which diagrams, drawings, and formulas act as models. The role of iconic models has especially increased with the expansion of the use of computers in the construction of iconic models.
4. Closely related to the iconic mental simulation , in which the models acquire a mentally visual character. An example in this case is the model of the atom, proposed at one time by Bohr.
5. Model experiment. Finally, a special type of modeling is the inclusion in an experiment not of the object itself, but of its model, due to which the latter acquires the character of a model experiment. This type of modeling indicates that there is no hard line between the methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge.
Organically connected with modeling idealization - mental construction of concepts, theories about objects that do not exist and are not realizable in reality, but those for which there is a close prototype or analogue in the real world. Examples of ideal objects constructed by this method are the geometric concepts of a point, line, plane, etc. All sciences operate with ideal objects of this kind - an ideal gas, an absolutely black body, a socio-economic formation, a state, etc.

Modeling methods

1. Full-scale modeling - an experiment on the object under study itself, which, under specially selected experimental conditions, serves as a model of itself.
2. Physical modeling – an experiment on special installations that preserve the nature of phenomena, but reproduce the phenomena in a quantitatively modified, scaled form.
3. Mathematical modeling – the use of models of a physical nature that differ from the simulated objects, but have a similar mathematical description. Full-scale and physical modeling can be combined into one class of physical similarity models, since in both cases the model and the original are identical in physical nature.

Modeling methods can be classified into three main groups: analytical, numerical and simulation.

1. Analytical modeling methods. Analytical methods make it possible to obtain the characteristics of a system as some functions of its operating parameters. Thus, the analytical model is a system of equations, the solution of which produces the parameters necessary to calculate the output characteristics of the system (average task processing time, throughput, etc.). Analytical methods provide accurate values ​​of system characteristics, but are used to solve only a narrow class of problems. The reasons for this are as follows. Firstly, due to the complexity of most real systems, their complete mathematical description (model) either does not exist, or analytical methods for solving the created mathematical model have not yet been developed. Secondly, when deriving the formulas on which analytical methods are based, certain assumptions are made that do not always correspond to the real system. In this case, the use of analytical methods must be abandoned.

2. Numerical modeling methods. Numerical methods involve transforming the model into equations, the solution of which is possible using the methods of computational mathematics. The class of problems solved by these methods is much wider. As a result of applying numerical methods, approximate values ​​(estimates) of the output characteristics of the system are obtained with a given accuracy.

3. Imitation modeling methods. With the development of computer technology, simulation modeling methods have become widely used for the analysis of systems in which stochastic influences are predominant.
The essence of simulation modeling (IM) is to simulate the process of system functioning over time, observing the same ratios of operation durations as in the original system. At the same time, the elementary phenomena that make up the process are simulated, their logical structure and the sequence of their occurrence in time are preserved. As a result of using MI, estimates of the system's output characteristics are obtained, which are necessary when solving problems of analysis, control and design.

In biology, for example, it is possible to build a model of the state of life in a reservoir after some time when one, two or more parameters change (temperature, salt concentration, presence of predators, etc.). Such techniques became possible thanks to the penetration into biology of the ideas and principles of cybernetics - the science of control.

The classification of types of modeling can be based on various characteristics. Depending on the nature of the processes being studied in the system, modeling can be divided into deterministic and stochastic; static and dynamic; discrete and continuous.
Deterministic Modeling is used to study systems whose behavior can be predicted with absolute certainty. For example, the distance traveled by a car during uniformly accelerated motion under ideal conditions; a device that squares a number, etc. Accordingly, a deterministic process occurs in these systems, which is adequately described by a deterministic model.

Stochastic (probability-theoretic) modeling is used to study a system whose state depends not only on controlled, but also on uncontrolled influences, or in which there is a source of randomness. Stochastic systems include all systems that include humans, for example, factories, airports, computer systems and networks, shops, consumer services, etc.
Static modeling serves to describe systems at any point in time.

Dynamic modeling reflects changes in the system over time (the output characteristics of the system at a given time are determined by the nature of the input influences in the past and present). Examples of dynamic systems are biological, economic, social systems; such artificial systems as a factory, enterprise, production line, etc.
Discrete modeling is used to study systems in which input and output characteristics are measured or changed discretely over time, otherwise continuous modeling is used. For example, an electronic clock, an electric meter are discrete systems; sundials, heating devices - continuous systems.
Depending on the form of representation of the object (system), mental and real modeling can be distinguished.
At real (full-scale) modeling, the study of system characteristics is carried out on a real object, or on part of it. Real modeling is the most adequate, but its capabilities, taking into account the characteristics of real objects, are limited. For example, carrying out real modeling with an enterprise automated control system requires, firstly, the creation of an automated control system; secondly, conducting experiments with the enterprise, which is impossible. Real modeling includes production experiments and complex tests, which have a high degree of reliability. Another type of real modeling is physical. In physical modeling, research is carried out on installations that preserve the nature of the phenomenon and have a physical similarity.
Mental modeling is used to simulate systems that are practically impossible to implement over a given time interval. The basis of mental modeling is the creation of an ideal model based on an ideal mental analogy. There are two types of mental modeling: figurative (visual) and symbolic.
At figuratively In modeling, on the basis of human ideas about real objects, various visual models are created that display the phenomena and processes occurring in the object. For example, models of gas particles in the kinetic theory of gases in the form of elastic balls acting on each other during a collision.
At iconic modeling describes the simulated system using conventional signs, symbols, in particular, in the form of mathematical, physical and chemical formulas. The most powerful and developed class of iconic models are represented by mathematical models.
Mathematical model is an artificially created object in the form of mathematical, symbolic formulas that displays and reproduces the structure, properties, interconnections and relationships between the elements of the object under study. Further, only mathematical models and, accordingly, mathematical modeling are considered.
Mathematical modeling – a research method based on replacing the original object under study with its mathematical model and working with it (instead of the object). Mathematical modeling can be divided into analytical (AM) , imitation (IM) , combined (CM) .
At AM an analytical model of the object is created in the form of algebraic, differential, finite-difference equations. The analytical model is studied either by analytical methods or by numerical methods.
At THEM a simulation model is created, and the statistical modeling method is used to implement the simulation model on a computer.
At KM decomposition of the system functioning process into subprocesses is carried out. For those of them, where possible, analytical methods are used, otherwise simulation methods are used.

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Among all school disciplines, and just sciences, biology occupies a special place. After all, this is the most ancient, first and natural science, interest in which arose with the advent of man himself and his evolution. The study of this discipline has developed differently in different eras. Research in biology was carried out using ever new methods. However, there are still those that were relevant from the very beginning and have not lost their significance. What are these ways of studying science and what is this discipline in general, we will consider in this article.

Biology as a science

If we delve deeper into the etymology of the word “biology,” then translated from Latin it will literally sound like “the science of life.” And this is true. This definition reflects the entire essence of the science in question. It is biology that studies the entire diversity of life on our planet, and if necessary, then beyond its borders.

There are several biological ones in which all representatives of the biomass are united according to common morphological, anatomical, genetic and physiological characteristics. These are the kingdoms:

• Animals.
• Plants.
• Mushrooms.
• Viruses.
• Bacteria, or Prokaryotes.

Each of them is represented by a huge number of species and other taxonomic units, which once again emphasizes how diverse the nature of our planet is. like science - to study them all, from birth to death. Also identify the mechanisms of evolution, relationships with each other and humans, nature itself.

Biology is just a general name that includes a whole family of subsciences and disciplines engaged in detailed research in the field of living beings and any manifestations of life.

As mentioned above, the study of biology has been carried out by people since ancient times. Man was interested in how plants, animals, and himself worked. Observations of living nature were carried out and conclusions were drawn, this is how factual material and the theoretical basis of science were accumulated.

The achievements of modern biology have generally stepped far forward and make it possible to look into the smallest and unimaginably complex structures, interfere with the course of natural processes and change their direction. In what ways have you been able to achieve such results at all times?

Research methods in biology

To obtain knowledge, it is necessary to use various methods of obtaining it. This also applies to biological sciences. Therefore, this discipline has its own set of measures that allow one to replenish the methodological and factual treasury. This research methods in school necessarily touches on this topic, because this question is the basis. Therefore, these methods are discussed in natural history or biology lessons in the fifth grade.

What research methods exist?

1. Description.
2. in biology.
3. Experiment.
4. Comparison.
5. Modeling method.
6. Historical method.
7. Modernized options based on the use of the latest advances in technology and modern equipment. For example: electron spectroscopy and microscopy, staining method, chromatography, and others.

All of them have always been important, and remain so today. However, among them there is one that appeared first and is still the most important.

Observation method in biology

It is this version of the study that is decisive, first and significant. What is observation? This is the acquisition of information of interest about an object using the senses. That is, you can understand what kind of living creature is in front of you using the organs of hearing, sight, touch, smell and taste.

This is how our ancestors learned to distinguish the elements of biomass. This is how research in biology continues to this day. After all, it is impossible to know how a caterpillar pupates and a butterfly emerges from a cocoon unless you observe it with your own eyes, recording every moment in time.

And hundreds of such examples can be given. All zoologists, mycologists, botanists, algologists and other scientists observe the selected object and receive complete information about its structure, lifestyle, interaction with the environment, features of physiological processes and other subtleties of the organization.

Therefore, the observation method in biology is considered the most important, historically the first and significant. Closely next to it is another method of research - description. After all, it is not enough to observe; you also need to describe what you managed to see, that is, record the result. This will later become a theoretical knowledge base about a particular object.

Let's give an example. If an ichthyologist should conduct research in the field of a specific type of fish, for example, pink perch, then he, first of all, studies the already existing theoretical basis, which was compiled from observations by scientists before him. After this, he begins to observe himself and carefully records all the results obtained. After this, a series of experiments are carried out, and the results are compared with those that were already available earlier. This clears up the question of where, for example, these fish species can spawn? What conditions do they need for this and how widely can they vary?

It is obvious that the method of observation in biology, as well as description, comparison and experiment, are closely linked into a single complex - methods for studying living nature.

Experiment

This method is typical not only for biological science, but also for chemistry, physics, astronomy and others. It allows you to clearly verify one or another theoretically put forward assumption. With the help of experiment, hypotheses are confirmed or refuted, theories are created and axioms are put forward.

It was experimentally that the blood circulation in animals, respiration and photosynthesis in plants, as well as a number of other physiological vital processes were discovered.

Simulation and comparison

Comparison is a method that allows one to draw an evolutionary line for each species. It is this method that underlies the obtaining of information on the basis of which a classification of species is compiled and trees of life are built.

Modeling is a more mathematical method, especially if we talk about the computer method of constructing a model. This method involves creating situations over the study of an object that cannot be observed in natural conditions. For example, how this or that drug will affect the human body.

Historical method

It underlies the identification of the origin and formation of each organism, its development and transformation in the course of evolution. Based on the data obtained, theories are built and hypotheses are put forward about the emergence of life on Earth and the development of each kingdom of nature.

Biology in 5th grade

It is very important to instill in students interest in the science in question in a timely manner. Today textbooks "Biology. 5th grade" are appearing; observation in them is the main method of studying this subject. This is how children gradually master the full depth of this science, comprehend its meaning and importance.

In order for the lessons to be interesting and to instill in children an interest in what they are studying, more time should be devoted to this particular method. After all, only when the student himself observes the behavior of cells and their structure through a microscope will he be able to realize the full interest of this process and how subtle and important it all is. Therefore, according to modern requirements, an activity-based approach to studying a subject is the key to students’ successful acquisition of knowledge.

And if children record each process they study in a diary of observations in biology, then the trace of the object will remain with them for the rest of their lives. This is how the world around us is formed.

In-depth study of the subject

If we talk about specialized classes aimed at a deeper, more detailed study of science, then we should talk about the most important thing. For such children, a special program for in-depth study of biology should be developed, which will be based on observations in the field (summer practice), as well as on constant experimental research. Children must convince themselves of the theoretical knowledge that is being put into their heads. It is then that new discoveries, achievements and the birth of people of science are possible.

The role of biological education of schoolchildren

In general, children need to study biology not only because nature must be loved, cherished and protected. But also because it significantly expands their horizons, allows them to understand the mechanisms of life processes, get to know themselves from the inside and take care of their health.

If you periodically tell the children about the achievements of modern biology and how this affects people’s lives, they themselves will understand the importance and significance of science. They will be imbued with love for it, which means they will also love its object - living nature.

Achievements of modern biology

There are, of course, many of these. If we set a time frame of at least fifty years, we can list the following outstanding successes in the field of the science in question.

1. Decoding the genome of animals, plants and humans.
2. Revealing the mechanisms of cell division and death.
3. Revealing the essence of the flow of genetic information in the developing organism.
4. Cloning living beings.
5. Creation (synthesis) of biologically active substances, drugs, antibiotics, antiviral drugs.

Such achievements of modern biology allow humans to control certain diseases of humans and animals, preventing them from developing. They allow us to solve many problems that beset people in the 21st century: epidemics of terrible viruses, hunger, lack of drinking water, poor environmental conditions, and others.

When we talk about biology, we are talking about the science that deals with the study of all living things. All living beings, including their habitat, are studied. From the structure of cells to complex biological processes, all this is the subject of biology. Let's consider research methods in biology, which are currently in use.

Biological research methods include:

• Empirical/Experimental Methods
• Descriptive methods
• Comparative methods
• Statistical methods
• Modeling
• Historical methods

Empirical methods consist in the fact that the object of experience is subjected to a change in the conditions of its existence, and then the results obtained are taken into account. Experiments are of two types depending on where they are conducted: laboratory experiments and field experiments. Natural conditions are used to conduct field experiments, and special laboratory equipment is used to conduct laboratory experiments.

Descriptive methods are based on observation, followed by analysis and description of the phenomenon. This method allows us to highlight the features of biological phenomena and systems. This is one of the most ancient methods.

Comparative methods imply comparison of the obtained facts and phenomena with other facts and phenomena. Information is obtained through observation. Recently, it has become popular to use monitoring. Monitoring is constant observation, which allows you to collect data on the basis of which analysis and then forecasting will be carried out.

Statistical methods also known as mathematical methods, and are used to process numerical data that was obtained during an experiment. In addition, this method is used to ensure the reliability of certain data.

Modeling This is a method that has been gaining momentum lately and involves working with objects by representing them in models. What cannot be analyzed and studied after an experiment can be learned through modeling. Partially, not only conventional modeling is used, but also mathematical modeling.

Historical methods are based on the study of previous facts, and allow us to determine existing patterns. But since one method is not always sufficiently effective, it is customary to combine these methods to obtain better results.

So we looked at the main research methods in biology. We really hope that you found this article interesting and informative. Be sure to write your questions and comments in the comments.

Biology takes care of all living beings and, especially, humans, and Ursosan (http://www.ursosan.ru/) takes care of his liver. Ursosan will help in treatment

PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF "THE FIRST SEPTEMBER"

BUKHVALOV V.A.

Development of students' creative abilities in biology lessons

using elements of the theory of inventive problem solving (TRIZ)

Unfortunately, we have to admit that despite the ongoing reform of the content of school education, information and reproductive education predominates in biology lessons. Such an approach does not meet the requirements of modern society, where the foreground is not so much encyclopedic knowledge as the ability to obtain information, transform it and use it creatively for research or practical activities.
In the second half of the last century G.S. Altshuller developed the theory of inventive problem solving (TRIZ). In a primitive interpretation, TRIZ is a set of algorithms for formulating and solving creative problems. TRIZ elements can be used as a very effective means for developing students' creative thinking when teaching biology at school. Since 1987, such an experiment has been carried out by the author and his colleagues from about ten schools in Latvia.
The implementation of this work required significant changes to the course content. Along with traditional informational texts, reproductive issues and laboratory work, the course included biological problems - creative tasks that were compiled both by the author himself and his colleagues. In addition to this, sets of creative works on biology with research, expert, project and forecast content were created, which are also used in lessons and as homework.
The proposed eight lectures are a condensed course of the main types of educational activities of students and methodological support for the teacher, aimed at familiarizing colleagues with the TRIZ approach to teaching biology at school.

Course curriculum

Lecture 1. Structure and content of biological research

Specifics of research in scientific practice

Modern life cannot be imagined without science. Let's ask students a simple question: what is the importance of science in everyday human life? Oddly enough, our students can tell a lot from the theory of science: give examples of patterns and laws, theories and methods of cognition, but for some reason this question often causes them difficulty. But the box opens very simply - everything that surrounds us in the school classroom is a direct embodiment of science into practice: the school building itself was built in accordance with the laws of construction of engineering structures; desks, textbooks, notebooks are created taking into account hygienic standards; The lamps in the office are installed in accordance with the laws of electrical engineering. Even our clothes are created taking into account a whole bunch of laws and patterns. When getting ready for school in the morning, we use soap, make tea or coffee, do exercises, and all this is ensured by the practical application of knowledge about scientific laws. Moreover, this knowledge is laid down in us from early childhood by our parents as simple truths, one might say axioms. From childhood we get used to following them, without really thinking about their correctness.

The first question arises: is everything correct in our methods of teaching subjects, if students, in general, know the theoretical principles quite well, but the request to theoretically justify their own practical actions often leaves them perplexed? For example, children are unlikely to be able to answer the question: what laws of physics do you need to know in order to install a socket? Or what rules of biology should you keep in mind when caring for indoor plants? Or, what rules determine that you need to brush your teeth at least twice a day, and not, say, three or five?

Scientific research in many cases began with the formulation of specific practical problems for which there were no answers, or the answers available at that time did not allow one to fully obtain high practical results.

Let's take the classic example of research into plant nutrition. Even ancient farmers learned to use manure and ash to increase plant productivity. However, constant fluctuations in yield over the centuries made it clear that the combination of mineral and organic

The use of fertilizers is subject to certain rules and depends not only on the soil, but also on the crops grown. And only at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. Agrochemistry is gradually becoming an independent science, revealing patterns in the collection and use of fertilizers in the fields.

Thus, the first specific feature of scientific research is that questions to which scientists are looking for answers arise in real practical activities. Such questions are called problems. A problem is a question for which there is no answer at all or the available answers are not specific, ensuring the effectiveness of practical activities. Problems are constant companions of our lives, big or small, complex or not, but they are always there when we try to do something. You can, of course, do nothing, but then the problem of survival arises.

Scientists for the most part are very observant and meticulous people. They always question what seems simple and understandable to many. A simple example from the works of N. Copernicus. Everyone knows that the Sun rises in the east and sets in the west. At the beginning of the 16th century. Almost no one doubted that it was the Sun that revolved around the Earth, because everyone saw the movement of the Sun, but no one saw the movement of the Earth. And only N. Copernicus doubted: is this so or only it seems? As a result of research, the scientist was able to prove that everything is just the opposite: the Sun stands still, and the planets, including the Earth, move around it.

But is it necessary to double-check the well-known truths?

Let's return to the example of using fertilizers on fields. For centuries this work has been carried out based on practical experience. It can be argued that farmers have learned to use various combinations of mineral and organic fertilizers quite effectively, but the question arises: were these practical solutions the best?

And here we come to the second specific feature of scientific research: the results of scientific research cannot be of the nature of absolute truth, since they are always limited by the methods of cognition and the intellectual capabilities of researchers and, therefore, require periodic re-verification. This means that any truth, even the most seemingly unshakable one, must be questioned and rechecked from time to time. New research methods appear, and their application often leads to significant clarifications in the content of truths, and sometimes to the complete replacement of old truths with new ones.

You can often hear young people skeptically declare that there are not enough prospects in science: all or almost all major discoveries have already been made, and there is no point in spending years, or even a lifetime, on small details. By the way, at all times, most young people were skeptical about a scientific career and only a few “started all over again”, re-checking what was considered an unshakable truth.

We must always remember that any truth is born as a heresy and dies as a delusion. True, no one knows the lifetime of truth, and it is impossible to determine it. This time depends on the speed of emergence of new methods of knowledge and scientists with extraordinary intelligence. What did we know about the cellular structure of organisms before the advent of the microscope? There was nothing but hypotheses on this score. The invention of the microscope led to revolutionary discoveries in the field of the structure and functioning of cells and tissues, and the emergence of new sciences - cytology, embryology, histology.

Scientists were generally satisfied with the physical picture of the world, framed in the harmonious system of mechanics of I. Newton, and suddenly, and this always happens in science, just suddenly, a man with an extraordinary intellect appears, A. Einstein, who puts forward the special theory of relativity at first as a hypothesis. And this gives a new direction for physical research and leads to a revision of the entire physical picture of the world, which until recently seemed to scientists to be simple, understandable and generally not contradictory.

The third specific feature of scientific research is the need for constant self-education in order to study information on all issues related to the field of research. Probably, in no other profession is there such a strict requirement to constantly study scientific literature and the results of the latest research as in the profession of a scientist. The experience of other researchers, presented in publications, is compiled in the form of a scientific card index, which is replenished over the years and is the most valuable tool of scientific knowledge. It’s not for nothing that they say that the one who owns the information owns the truth. Why is the card index so important in scientific work? Because it defines the field of known information and clearly marks the boundary beyond which the unknown begins.

In 1919, the Odessa accountant I. Guberman, with the help of elementary algebra, arrived at almost the same provisions of the special theory of relativity as A. Einstein. Imagine his surprise and disappointment when he learned that these provisions had already been discovered. Isolation from information about the latest research reduces scientific activity to nothing.

The fourth specific feature of science is in searching and testing all possible paths leading to the truth. Such paths are scientific hypotheses. A scientific hypothesis always includes certain facts and assumptions. If a hypothesis is built without scientific facts, only on assumptions, then most often it is devoid of scientific meaning. This is a very important methodological aspect that determines the objectivity of scientific research.

Has anyone ever thought about the question: why, in fact, do interesting hypotheses come to mind, as a rule, to scientists engaged in research? Why don't these hypotheses occur to us? Why are we worse? For example, the “father of Russian aviation” Mozhaisky, once walking in the rain, noticed how water flowing from a drainpipe flowed around a brick. By looking at the position of the brick, he came up with the idea of ​​the shape of an airplane wing. Another example: according to some historians of science, the chemist Kekule dreamed of the shape of a benzene ring. Maybe something will come to our minds, like Mozhaisky’s, if we walk in the rain more often?

Neither one nor the other. Only those who are immersed in information on this topic can see a scientific hypothesis. A hypothesis is always based on facts, and the hypothesis itself, as an intuitive insight, is born only if the scientist regularly comprehends these facts and creates in his mind options for various sequences of solving the problem. Otherwise nothing will happen.

You can call it differently: insight, illumination, sixth sense, divine revelation, whatever you like. But the truth is revealed only to the worthy, to those who have proven their right to it through many years of hard work, and sometimes throughout their lives. Maybe that’s why there are no young and zealous Nobel laureates?

What are the results of scientific work? Let's say that a scientist devoted his entire life to testing a number of hypotheses, and by the end of his life and career he was convinced that all of them were wrong. Could this be possible? How! We know the names of those scientists who have achieved undoubted success, the creators of laws and theories, the authors of famous and original hypotheses and research methods. But hundreds of names of scientists who did not make great discoveries remain only in the annals of specialized scientific literature. Almost no one knows about them. They retested various hypotheses and convinced themselves and convinced others that many of these hypotheses were untenable. It turns out that life is in vain? If there are no great discoveries, then what kind of scientist are you?

No, not in vain. Their work is no less important than the work of the creators of laws and theories. It is thanks to their efforts that the time of other scientists on unnecessary searches is saved and the field of searching for truth is narrowed. There can be a lot of hypotheses related to solving a problem - tens and even hundreds. The question arises: is it necessary to check everything? Maybe it’s enough to check ten, thirty, or those that seem closest to the truth to the scientist?

A specific feature of scientific research is precisely that it is necessary to test all possible hypotheses. No one knows and cannot know, and it is extremely difficult to determine intuitively, which hypothesis will turn out to be true as a result of practical testing.

Moreover, there may be several such truths, which subsequently gives alternative directions in the development of science and practice. Therefore, scientific research requires patience and repeated testing.

Let's draw some conclusions from the first part of our lecture.

Conclusion one– pessimistic. Scientific work most often does not bring either money or fame. As K.E. wrote Tsiolkovsky: “All my life I have been doing something that did not give me either fame or bread, but I believed that in the future my work would bring people mountains of bread and an abyss of power” (“Dreams of Earth and Heaven”).

Does this mean that science is an activity for people not of this world? Not at all. Already at school, it is necessary to begin preparing for scientific activity, teaching students the basics of scientific research and the search for problems that have prospects for scientific practice. It should be remembered that a society can be civilized and competitive only if the scientific institutions available in this society are competitive.

One of the main tasks of the teacher is to acquaint students with the latest research in the science being studied, with the problems that scientists are currently working on, methods for solving them, and practical prospects for using possible solutions. As for money and fame, there are many professions that rely on the enthusiasm of the people who choose these professions. The professions of a doctor, teacher, and engineer are not highly paid in our country, but it is impossible to imagine a society without these professions.

Second conclusion– optimistic. The practice of many teachers shows that, starting from grades 6–7, students can be gradually taught the methodology of scientific research. Moreover, already at school, individual students can carry out very successful and scientifically interesting research.

Conclusion three– methodological. The material presented above provides information for organizing discussions with students. Separate discussions can be held for each feature of scientific research, starting from the 6th grade. After all, the specificity of scientific research is some patterns of scientific activity, understanding the essence of which allows the student to really imagine the work of a scientist. Let us briefly repeat the sequence of its main stages.

The world around us can be considered as a set of problems that arise in practical activities, and it is important to learn to see and formulate these problems.

It is very important to revise known patterns, laws and theories from time to time, especially comparing them with new facts. There must be a real “hunt” for contradictions between theory and facts. It is contradictions that are the engine of science.

To accumulate the information necessary for scientific work, you need a card index. Ideally, you should start compiling a card index from kindergarten, or, in extreme cases, from school. The larger the file on the topic under study, the greater the chances of winning, i.e. for a scientific discovery, honor, fame, money, a Nobel Prize, finally. This is if you approach the matter with humor. But seriously, maintaining a card index requires constant self-education - after all, you need to not only write down a fact, but also analyze its relationship with other facts and theories.

So, comparing facts and theory, we saw a contradiction. The fun begins - formulating hypotheses to resolve contradictions and testing them. Hypotheses must have at least a partial factual basis, i.e. be scientific, and the more hypotheses there are, the more likely it is that at least one of them will turn out to be true.

But is everything in these findings consistent with scientific work, or is there something wrong? This is what you need to discuss with students.

Structure of biological research and features of its content

Study is a solution to a problem, including theoretical analysis, formulation of hypotheses, practical testing of the obtained hypotheses and presentation of the results. Scientific research has the following structure.

1. Statement of the problem, goals and objectives of the study. The results of the entire study depend on how correctly the problem is formulated. A research problem is a difficulty in explaining the life activity of an organism or community, a lack or absence of information about any object or process.

Problem formulation begins with a brief description of the situation in which the problem arises, followed by a statement of the problem itself.

To formulate a problem about a difficulty that arises, you can use the following scheme: performing an action (a brief description of its essence) gives a positive effect (indicate which one), but at the same time a negative effect occurs (indicate which one).

To formulate a problem about the lack or absence of information about any system, you can use the following scheme: increasing the efficiency of the system (indicate which one) is possible if special conditions are created (indicate which one).

Based on the essence of the problem, the purpose of the study is formulated. The goal is the expected result of the study.

In accordance with the goal, the research objectives are formulated. The research objectives indicate the main stages of the work; as a rule, there are three of them: theoretical analysis of the research problem, formulation of hypotheses for solutions to the problem into a theoretical model, and practical testing of the theoretical model and its correction.

2. Selection of research methods. The choice of research methods is determined by the objectives. To complete each task, theoretical and (or) practical methods should be carefully considered and selected.

Theoretical methods include: comparative analysis of information from scientific literature, modeling, system analysis, methods for resolving contradictions, design and design.

Practical research methods include: observation, measurement, questionnaires, interviews, testing, conversation, rating method (determining the significance of an object, the activity of a person or event by using a special rating scale), the method of independent characteristics (drawing up a written description of an object, person or events by a large number of people independently of each other), experiment.

3. Theoretical analysis of the problem. The vast majority of scientific problems are not objectively new. They have already been posed by scientists in different formulations and have certain solutions. Another thing is that existing solutions are ineffective or lead to undesirable negative consequences.

Therefore, the first stage of theoretical analysis is the study and analysis of scientific and popular science literature. Without such an analysis, there is a high probability that the research results obtained will repeat previously known solutions to the problem.

When starting to analyze scientific literature, you should first of all select the necessary sources. To do this, it is best to use the systematic catalog of the bibliographic department of a scientific library.

When working with each book, carefully read the table of contents, select chapters and paragraphs that are directly related to the research problem. From these chapters, only those fragments are written out that contain information about methods for solving the problem and the solutions obtained. These fragments are written out in full, or their annotations are compiled.

The most important condition for the correct analysis of scientific literature is to compare different approaches to solving a problem, indicating the strengths and weaknesses in each of the solutions obtained by the authors. After completing the analysis of scientific monographs, it is necessary to analyze popular science literature and, above all, popular science magazines. Often the results of the latest research are published in popular science literature.

At the second stage of theoretical analysis, the problem is solved using the methods of dialectical logic and the formulation of hypotheses. The optimal way is to solve the problem using all the above methods: system analysis, methods of resolving contradictions. The application of these methods will be discussed in the second lecture.

At the third stage of theoretical analysis, solutions to the problem obtained in the process of analyzing scientific literature and hypotheses obtained during dialectical analysis are compared. As a result of this work, a theoretical model of the research goal is constructed for subsequent practical testing.

4. Practical testing of the theoretical model. Practical testing of a theoretical model usually includes the following three groups of operations.

1. Practical testing of the theoretical model using experiments and its correction. The researcher should remember that the criterion of truth is practice, namely the experimental verification of the obtained theoretical provisions.

When planning experiments, you should adhere to the following rules: 1) maximum exclusion from the experiment of factors that may interfere with its conduct or distort the results; 2) repeated experiments; 3) comparison of the experimental results with the results in the control experiment, i.e. in the absence of the fact, the effect of which is being investigated, or under standard conditions; 4) possible negative consequences for the participants of the experiment must be calculated in advance; 5) a positive result of experiments is the achievement of stable (reproducible) positive results in the majority of experiments.

2. Sociometry is the study of the opinions of various people about the experimental system through conversations, questionnaires, interviews, rating methods and independent characteristics, tests. Sociometry allows you to see and evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of an experimental system through the eyes of many people, both those who have and those who have nothing to do with its creation. The most important condition for sociometry is the preliminary familiarization of survey participants with the experimental model. People need to know what they will be expressing their opinion about.

To prepare questions for a questionnaire or interview, you can use the following scheme:

– How do you feel about the system under study?
– What, in your opinion, are the positive aspects of the model?
– What, in your opinion, are the negative aspects of the model?
– Do you think the following changes should be made to the system (indicate which ones)? – What changes do you propose to make to the system?

3. Mathematical analysis of the results of experiments and sociometry involves constructing graphs, diagrams, drawing up equations, as well as determining coefficients of changes in useful functions.

Graphs and diagrams are built based on general rules. The coefficient of change of each useful function of the system is calculated as the ratio of the quantitative indicator of the useful function of the system before the impact to the quantitative indicator of the useful function after the impact on the system under study. The coefficients of changes in useful functions can be expressed as percentages; for this, the resulting digital values ​​are multiplied by 100%.

Mathematical processing of the results obtained allows us to more accurately determine the efficiency of the experimental system.

5. Drawing up conclusions and proposals. This stage of the study includes the following two parts.

1. Ascertaining part. In this part of the study, generalized conclusions are drawn up for each part of the work. Based on a theoretical analysis of the problem, the conclusions briefly display the resulting theoretical model, its strengths and weaknesses. Based on the practical part of the work, the results of the experiments are analyzed, the elements of correction that were introduced into the theoretical model are indicated, and the result (goal) of the study is finalized.

Based on mathematical processing of experimental results and sociometry, changes in the functioning efficiency of the resulting experimental system are analyzed in comparison with generally accepted data and people’s attitude towards it.

It should be remembered that during the research process both negative and positive results can be obtained. The argumentation that the researcher offers to explain the results obtained is fundamentally important.

Completing the ascertaining part, the researcher evaluates the theoretical and practical results of the study.

2. Forecasting part. In this part, proposals for further research of the system under study are formulated. The researcher makes a brief forecast for the development of research on the system, formulates problems that may arise in its activities, and draws up a brief plan for solving them.

6. Preparation of a list of used literature.(In the Russian Federation, state standards (GOST) for bibliographic descriptions are established for each type of publication. Abroad, publishers determine the rules for bibliographic descriptions for each type of publication.)

The list of literature that was used in the research process can be compiled in two ways: alphabetically or in order of use. If scientific monographs are indicated, the recording form is as follows:

1. Ivanov V.V. Baltic Sea. – Riga: Enlightenment, 1987. – pp. 34–37.
The pages of the publication used in the work are indicated, but you can also indicate the total number of pages in the book. In this case, instead of pp. 34–37, the total number of pages in the book is recorded, for example, 205 pp.
If articles from scientific journals or newspapers are indicated, then the recording form is as follows:

2. Petrov A.N. Moritssala Nature Reserve//Nature and us. – 1989. – No. 7. – P. 32–41.

Let us formulate some conclusions regarding this part of the lecture. It is advisable to introduce students to the technology of scientific research through a series of discussions of its individual stages in class. At the same time, it is advisable to supplement the teacher’s story about the features of each stage with written reflections (essays) by students on the topic of the significance of this stage for the research process and its results. It is recommended that essays be composed in groups, then read out and discussed, with other groups tasked with refuting the main conclusions of the essay being read.

Methodology for introducing students to biological research

The experience of teaching students technology of scientific research allows us to propose the following approach as one of the possible options for teaching methods:

6–9th grades – study of elements of research activity;

Grades 10–11 – holistic study of scientific research technology.

There is no doubt that among primary school students there will always be children with a high intellectual level who will be able to conduct a comprehensive biological study by the 7th–9th grade, but such children are few and far between.

Training in the analysis of scientific and popular science literature

In grades 6–8, it is recommended to teach students how to work with information from scientific and popular science literature. There are five options for such work (according to the degree of complexity): 1) card index (set of annotations); 2) encyclopedic reference; 3) report; 4) abstract; 5) overview analysis.

It should be said right away about the amount of work. Unfortunately, teachers often exaggerate the requirements for the volume of student reports. The volume of information work should be strictly limited, following the principle: words should be few, thoughts should be crowded. Those who doubt this can be reminded that A. Einstein’s doctoral dissertation on the special theory of relativity was presented in only 25 pages. And this was at a time when similar dissertations were written on no less than 150–200 pages.

Card index is a set of cards that briefly summarize the content of an article or book. Learning to compile a card index should begin with the texts of the textbook. An approximate annotation plan could be as follows: 1) title of the text; 2) main ideas of the text; 3) facts, arguments and experiences to support the main ideas; 4) contradictions between arguments; 5) problems (lack or absence of information about something). The size of the card is no more than half of an A4 page (900 characters).

Encyclopedic reference is a collection of cards on a selected topic. The volume of encyclopedic references is growing every year.

Report is a text that compares two or more scientists’ opinions and research results on a selected topic. At the first stage of training, it is possible to compile basic reports based on materials from the encyclopedia or the Internet (this is more of an information message than a report). The main objective of the report is to compare different opinions and search for possible contradictions. The report should not exceed 3 pages.

Abstract differs from a report in that, based on a comparison of the opinions of different scientists on a chosen topic, the author of the abstract formulates problems (contradictions) and puts forward hypotheses for their solutions. This form of work is rated higher than the report. The volume of the abstract is no more than 5 pages.

Overview analysis– this is an abstract that sets out the main scientific opinions, the results of research on this topic, makes a comparative analysis of them, formulates problems (contradictions) and puts forward hypotheses. It is advisable to limit the volume of the review analysis to 7–10 pages.

Training in formulating problems, solving them and putting forward hypotheses

We will consider this large and rather complex section in detail in the second and third lectures.

Training in observations, measurements, experiments

These are traditional elements of biological research. Training in the methods of these studies is carried out within the framework of program laboratory and practical work. However, it is necessary to make one important addition from the theory of solving inventive problems (TRIZ, more about TRIZ in the following lectures). Measurements must be carried out in accordance with the following rules.

1. To accurately determine the state of the system, it is necessary to consistently measure all its changes.

2. If it is impossible to measure the parameters of the system itself, then this can be done on its copy or an adequate model.

3. If measuring system parameters causes significant difficulties, then it is advisable to change the system so that there is no need to measure these parameters.

4. The accuracy of measurements can be improved by comparing the system with one or more standards whose parameters are known.

Teaching research planning in grades 8–11

Research planning refers to a special series of creative tasks for students, completing which they create a description of the proposed research plan. It is advisable to begin this work as early as 8th grade. In secondary school, this work should be a mandatory component of students' educational activities.

Here are some examples of such tasks.

1. Make a plan to study the state of the environment in the vicinity of your school, using trees, lichens, species composition and the number of herbaceous plants as indicators.

2. According to some data, obesity in humans is a genetic disease, and not a consequence of an irrational lifestyle. Design a study to determine the real causes of obesity.

3. Scientists have found that the work of the human heart is not enough to pump blood throughout the body. Make a plan for the research that the scientists needed to carry out.

It is advisable to carry out research planning in groups or pairs of students. These forms, especially the group form, provide optimal organization of student communication.

Students can be offered the following algorithm for solving this problem, which is only one of the possible algorithms for planning research.

1. Determine the purpose of the research: what result is expected to be obtained during the research process? What is the practical meaning of the study?

2. Determine the objectives and methods of research - the sequence of stages of work to achieve the goal.

3. Formulate the research problem - a difficulty that needs to be eliminated, a lack or absence of information about the purpose of the study.

4. Formulate a research hypothesis(es) - an assumption about a possible way to solve the problem.

5. Write a brief description of the information that needs to be obtained from the scientific literature to build a theoretical model of the problem situation.

6. Write a description of the observations, experiments, and measurements that need to be performed to test the hypothesis(es).

7. What will be the conclusions from the research results?

Study planning example

Scientists have found that only 10% of human cell DNA regularly works on protein synthesis. What research did scientists need to conduct to reach this conclusion? Make a plan for it.

We are planning a study using the following algorithm.

1. The purpose of the study is to determine the volume and composition of regularly operating genes in relation to the total volume of genes. The practical significance of the study lies in many aspects, for example, in understanding which genes work intensively and, perhaps, wear out faster, and how this affects human life expectancy. Another option is to try to find a mechanism for regulating the work of genes, especially turning off those genes whose work is undesirable at a given age.

2. Research objectives:

1) analysis of scientific literature: find information about the work of genes in the scientific literature;

2) experimental studies to determine gene expression (chemical methods will be used to determine proteins);

3) comparison of the results of experimental studies with data available in the scientific literature.

3. Research problem - it is necessary to obtain accurate information about the intensity of work and the composition of regularly working human genes during his life.

4. There can be many hypotheses, but we will limit ourselves to one: not all genes work regularly in a person, but only part of them, ensuring the synthesis of proteins necessary to maintain normal life functions. It is advisable for students to put forward many hypotheses, but it is recommended to plan further steps of the study on the basis of one hypothesis, which students will give preference to. Planning research on the remaining hypotheses can be recommended as homework or an assignment for in-depth course study (differentiation).

5. From the scientific literature it is necessary to obtain the following information: which genes work and how intensively, which genes are turned on only during a certain period, which ones work constantly. Compare information from different scientific sources, formulate contradictions in the form of problematic questions.

6. Experiments involve the determination of synthesized proteins in isolated tissues of the human body, and it is desirable to select different tissues for subsequent comparison. It is necessary to determine which proteins will be synthesized. In addition, tissue samples must be taken from people of different ages to evaluate age-related changes in gene expression.

7. The conclusions should provide generalizations on the results of each stage of the work (task), a comparison of the results of experiments and the theoretical model, an assessment of the compliance of the results with the hypothesis and the formulation of prospects for further research.

Let's draw some conclusions from this part of the lecture. In grades 6–7, students begin their initial training in research technology. The preparation of annotation cards, encyclopedic references, reports, and abstracts is planned by the teacher based on the specific content of the topics and the availability of additional literature. Analytical reviews are recommended to be completed in high school. Practical and laboratory work, experiments and measurements in the classroom and at home allow you to master the basic skills of research practice.

Starting from the 8th grade, it is advisable to include tasks on planning biological research. At first, as generalizing works on two or three topics, so that students have the opportunity to choose. For this purpose, students are offered several topics. In grades 10–11, it is advisable to include such tasks in the content of each topic both in class and for homework.

Students' mastery of research planning allows individual students to move on to actual scientific research over time. This choice is made by the students themselves, and, most often, it relates to research on environmental and environmental topics, as well as to the problems of the lifestyle of children and adults and its impact on their health. Recent work is carried out using questionnaires, testing and other sociometric methods.

Questions and tasks

1. Suggest topics and describe methods for conducting discussions with students on specific features of scientific research.

2. Is it correct to say that truth is born in a dispute? Some scientists claim that in a dispute, truth is not born, but only contradictions are identified for the search for truth. Who to believe? Why?

3. The young and ambitious scientist firmly determined that by the age of 30 he simply must receive the Nobel Prize for the discovery that he will definitely make. Is it possible to plan such a discovery in advance? Can you tell me the secret of planning?

4. Make a plan to study the effect of vegetarian nutrition on human health.

5. Create a methodology for teaching students how to plan research using the example of drawing up a plan for research into the problem of the influence of continuous self-education on human life expectancy.

Literature for further reading

1. Altshuller G.S. Find an idea. – Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1986. – 209 p.

2. Babansky Yu.K. Intensification of the learning process // Biology at school. – 1987. – No. 1. – P. 3–6.

3. Clarin M.V. Innovations in global pedagogy: learning through inquiry, play and discussion. (Analysis of foreign experience.) - Riga, NPC "Experiment", 1995. - 176 p.