The word “Ukraine”, as the name of a territory, has been known for a long time. It first appeared in the Kyiv Chronicle in 1187 according to the Ipatiev list. Narrating the death of the Pereyaslavl prince Vladimir Glebovich during the campaign against the Polovtsians, the chronicler noted that “all the Pereyaslavl people cried for him,” “Ukraine moaned a lot about him.”

Several more chronicles, in particular the Galician-Volyn chronicle, testify to the rapid and widespread spread of this name in the 12th-13th centuries. Later - in the XIV-XV centuries - the word “Ukraine” began to be used to designate lands in the upper reaches of the Seim, Trubezh, Sula, Pelo (now Psel) rivers, i.e., the territories of the ancient Siverschyna and Pereyaslavchyna. Then this name spread to the Lower Dnieper region, Bratslav region, Podolia, Polesie, Pokuttya, Ljubljana region and Transcarpathia.

Since the 14th century, the term “Ukraine” has been used to mean “a country inhabited by Ukrainians.” Later, this word existed along with the name “Little Russia,” which appeared after the Ukrainian lands became part of the Moscow state. As for the origin of the name “Ukraine” itself, there are many versions. Disputes about this have been going on for a long time.

Some historians believe that it comes from the word edge - “end”, which means “outskirts”, “border or boundary land”. This version is one of the oldest. Its existence dates back to Polish historiography of the 17th century. It is supported by Russian historians, who proceed from the fact of the annexation of Ukrainian lands to the Russian Empire, relative to which they were actually peripheral, i.e., outlying.

But, as we have already seen, the word “Ukraine” appeared long before the unification of Ukrainians with Russia and meant the name of a certain independent territory. Numerous evidence regarding the use of the term "Ukraine" as a geographical name of the state can be found in official documents of the 17th century. For example, Hetman Petro Konashevich-Sagaidachny, in a letter to the Polish king on February 15, 1622, wrote about “Ukraine, our own, eternal, fatherland.”

And the Zaporozhye Cossacks signed a letter dated January 3, 1654; “With all the army and Ukraine, our homeland.” The chronicle of Samiyl Velichko also contains more specific names: “Ukraine of both sides of the Dnieper”, “Cossack Ukraine”, etc. Another hypothesis should be considered equally unfounded, according to which the word “Ukraine” supposedly comes from the verb “ukrayati”, i.e. i.e. “cut off”, and means “a piece of land cut off from the whole.” This version did not find support among specialists, since it was artificial in nature and did not correspond to the course of historical events. Even fewer adherents find the version according to which the word “Ukraine” comes from the name of the Slavic tribe “ukrov”. Allegedly, according to some sources, this tribe in the 6th century inhabited the areas around the current German city of Lubeck.

The predominant part of historians adheres to the idea that the concept of “Ukraine” comes from the Proto-Slavic language from the combination of the word “country” with the prepositions “u” or “in”. It is in the meaning of “country”, “native land” that this name was used not only in historical documents, but also in folk thoughts and songs, in the works of Ukrainian poets and writers. “Quiet world, dear land, my Ukraine” - this is how T. G. Shevchenko addressed his native country. Today, this name, dear to the heart of every Ukrainian, which came from time immemorial, has been returned to the independent state of Ukraine.

Let's first understand the origin of the term Ukraine. At the same time, let’s consider his attitude to the terms Little Rus', Little Russia. As is easy to understand, the word “Ukraine”. (“ukraina” in the spelling of that time) our ancestors called outlying, border lands. The word “ukraine” first appeared in the Ipatiev Chronicle in 1187. Moreover, the chronicler used it not as a toponym, but precisely in the meaning of borderland. To be more precise, the borderland of the Pereyaslav Principality.

The terms Little and Great Rus' began to be widely used only after the Mongol invasion. The first meant the Galicia-Volyn land, the second meant the Vladimir-Suzdal land. As we remember, the Kiev region (and the Dnieper region in general) was completely devastated by nomads and lay deserted. Some historians believe that these names were introduced into circulation by Greek church hierarchs to designate those two fragments of Rus' that, after Batu, continued contacts with Constantinople. Moreover, the Greeks were guided by a rule that came from antiquity, according to which the ancestral lands of the people were called the Small Country, and the Great Country - the lands colonized by people from the Small Country. Subsequently, the names Great/Little Rus' were used mainly by clergy or people who were educated in a church environment (and these were the majority at that time). These names began to appear especially often after the Union of Brest in 1596 in the texts of Orthodox publicists.

The term "Ukraine" at this time continued to be used by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Muscovite kingdom in the sense of border lands. So in the 15th century Serpukhov, Kashira and Kolomna were called Moscow Ukrainian cities. Ukraine (with emphasis on A) was even on the Kola Peninsula. South of Karelia was Kayan Ukraine. In the Pskov Chronicle in 1481, “Ukraine beyond the Okoya” is mentioned, and the lands around Tula are called “Tula Ukraine”. You can give a lot of similar examples if you want, but I think even these are enough to understand that there were a lot of “Ukrainians” in Rus'. Over time, in Russia, due to changes in territorial division, this term fell out of use, giving way to volosts and provinces. But in the lands of Rus' captured by the Poles, this term remained, however, the occupying power distorted the word “ukrAi-ia” in its own way, calling it “ukraIna” in its transcription.

By the way, I think it would be useful to explain that in the Middle Ages Rus' was divided into White, Black, Red and Small. Here we need to remember the origin of the name “Black Rus'”. In the XI V - XVI centuries. “Black Russia” was the name given to the lands that paid a universal tribute to the Golden Horde - “black forest”. These were mainly northeastern principalities. To understand why Rus' “turned black,” let us remember that “black” in Ancient Rus' was the name given to people subject to various duties or taxes. For example, the tax-paying class was called “black people”, hence the name “Black Hundred”.

Political structure of Muscovite Rus' in the 15th-16th centuries

However, in the fifteenth century, Moscow threw off the Horde yoke, and with it the name “Black” Rus' sank into oblivion. From now on, Great Rus' appears on the maps, whose autocrats, who received the informal title of the White Tsar, began to gather around themselves the lands of all Rus'. As of the first half of the 16th century, the Moscow state included Black Rus' and part of White Russia, i.e. Smolensk and Pskov; in Poland - Chervonnaya Rus, i.e. Galicia; in Lithuania - White and Little Rus'.

Therefore, the Poles needed to contrast the Russian lands belonging to them with the Russian lands of the Moscow state. Then the term Ukraine came in handy and was given a new meaning. However, at first the pamphleteers of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth tried to declare the subjects of the Moscow Tsar not to be Russian people at all. The Poles declared only Little and Chervonnaya (red) Rus' to be Russia, and the city of Lvov was called the capital of Rus'. However, the absurdity of such a statement was obvious, because everyone understood that both the Muscovites and the Orthodox of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were a single people, divided between two empires. Even the Polish geographer of the early 17th century. Simon Starovolsky wrote the following about “Russia” in his work “Polonia”: “It is divided into White Russia, which is part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and Red Russia, most closely called Roxolania and belonging to Poland. The third part of it, lying beyond the Don and the sources of the Dnieper, was called Black Russia by the ancients, but in modern times it began to be called Muscovy everywhere, because this entire state, no matter how extensive it is, is called Muscovy from the city and the river Moscow.”

However, this state of affairs threatened Polish power in Russian lands. Moreover, with the increasing pressure of the royal administration and Catholics on the Orthodox Church, the Russian people increasingly turned their gaze to the east, to the Moscow tsars of the same blood and same faith.

Under these conditions, the concept of “Ukraine” instead of “Rus” is increasingly being used in the Polish written tradition. As we have already mentioned, initially this name in Poland was applied to the border Russian Voivodeship, consisting of the lands of Red Ruthenia (Galicia). After the Union of Lublin, the crown (i.e., Polish) lands included the voivodeships of Kiev and Bratslav, which from now on became the new Polish borderland. The merger of the old and new Ukrainians of the Polish state gave rise to the generalized name of all these voivodeships as “Ukraine”. This name did not immediately become official, but, having become firmly established in the everyday use of the Polish gentry, it gradually began to penetrate into office work.

Map of Ukraine in the 17th century

In its development, this Polish concept of replacing Rus' with “Ukraine” reaches the 19th century. to its logical end - i.e. theories of Count Tadeusz Czatsky (1822) and Catholic priest F. Duchinsky (mid-19th century). For the first, Ukraine is a name derived from the ancient tribe “Ukrov” that never existed in real history, and for the second, the Slavic origin of the Great Russians is completely denied and their “Finno-Mongol” origin is affirmed. Today, these Polish nonsense (they say that it is not Slavs who live in the Russian Federation, but Mongolian-Ugric “hybrids”) are selflessly repeated by Ukrainian nationalists who defend the “Ukraine project” with foam at the mouth.

Why did this Polish name take root in our lands?

Firstly, it was well known to all Russian people and did not cause rejection. Secondly, along with the introduction of the name “Ukraine” instead of “Rus” among the Poles, this concept is also accepted by the Cossack foreman who received a Polish education. (After all, as we know, the Cossack elite worshiped everything noble!) At the same time, initially the Cossacks used the term “Ukraine” when communicating with the Poles, but when communicating with Orthodox people, the clergy and state institutions of the Russian state, the words “Rus” were still used " and "Little Rus'". But over time, the Cossack elders, who largely looked up to the customs and education of the Polish gentry, began to use the name “Ukraine” on a par with “Rus” and “Little Russia”. After the final entry of Little Russia into the Russian Empire, the appearance of the word “Ukraine” in documentation and literary works was sporadic, and in the eighteenth century this term almost completely fell out of use.

However, there remained a reserve where anti-Russian ideas developed freely. As we remember, after the Pereyaslav Rada, not all ancient Russian lands at that time were liberated from foreign rule. It was on these lands that the idea of ​​the existence of a separate non-Russian people of Ukrainians received state support and over time took hold of the minds. The Right Bank remained under Polish rule until the end of the eighteenth century and was reunited with Russia under the second (1793) and third (1795) partitions of Poland. Let us emphasize that although in our history these events are called “partitions of Poland,” the empire here did not encroach on the original Polish territories, but only returned the ancient lands of Rus' previously captured by Poland. However, Red Rus' (Galicia) was not returned then - by that time it no longer belonged to the Polish crown, since under the first partition of Poland (1772) it came into the possession of Austria.

As we see from the above, from the 14th century. The main name of the people and country on the territory of modern Ukraine was Rus (Black, Chervonnaya or Malaya), and this name was used until the middle of the 17th century. all ethnic, class-professional and religious groups living in Little Russia. And only with the process of penetration of Polish culture into the upper strata of the Russian population, the newfangled Polish name “Ukraine” began to spread. The entry of the Hetmanate into the Russian state stopped this process, which was revived only at the beginning of the 19th century, when the Right Bank entered the Russian Empire, having lost its entire national Russian elite in more than 100 years, whose place was taken by the Polish gentry. All this points to the external and artificial introduction of the name “Ukraine” instead of natural and historical concepts: Rus' and Little Rus'.

Preparing to take the DPA on the history of Ukraine, thousands of schoolchildren delve into the depths of textbooks, memorizing dates and names. But few people wonder about...

From Masterweb

Preparing to take the DPA on the history of Ukraine, thousands of schoolchildren delve into the depths of textbooks, memorizing dates and names. At the same time, few people ask the question of the authenticity/unreliability of what is written on the yellowed pages, much less try to form their own vision of the situation. In this race, the main thing is to pass the exam well, not to gain knowledge. Therefore, as soon as the thunderstorm passes, many happily forget what they have learned.

Let's try to briefly review the history of Ukraine and try to remember the main important events that happened to the people living on this land.

What is Ukraine?

Before we begin to consider the main issue, it is worth deciding what we mean by the concept of “Ukraine”. It’s no secret that after its withdrawal from the USSR, there were many disputes between it and the Russian Federation about common historical “property”.

Some Russian historians have beaten their chests, arguing that Ukrainians are a fictitious people and, like their language, appeared only a couple of centuries ago. And therefore, claims to belong to the Power of Prince Vladimir the Great are far-fetched. Their opponents protested no less zealously, claiming that they were the true descendants of those Russians, and there was no trace of Moscow at that time, not to mention the people who call themselves Russians today and who stole this name from their ancestors.

No matter which of them was right, partially or completely, there were always people on the lands of the modern Ukrainian state, no matter what they were called. And to consider the history of Ukraine (its Ukrainian or Russian versions) means studying how they lived and what they achieved. Let's stop there.

Famous books about history

The first attempts to write the history of Ukraine as a state under this name actually appeared relatively recently. The following books of this kind were the most successful.

• "History of Ukraine-Rus" by Nikolai Arkas (1908).
• A monograph by Mikhail Grushevsky in 10 volumes was published under the same title. She described the period from the first settlements on these lands to the beginning of the twentieth century. This work is considered a classic of its kind and has inspired other writers. For example, in 2007, Oles Buzina published “The Secret History of Ukraine-Rus,” in which he criticized traditional ideas about this state. And although his book is rather a parody of Grushevsky’s work and an attempt to cash in on the scandal, it contains several interesting observations.
• More ancient and controversial is the work of Georgy Konissky “History of the Rus or Little Russia”. This book describes events before the start of the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774.
• Modern scientists have not come to a consensus regarding the monographs of N. I. Kostomarov. Most of them discuss the Cossack period and the main figures of that time.
• As for more ancient books on the history of Ukraine and Russia, the Cossack chronicles can be viewed in this light. The most famous are the “Chronicle of the Samovidets” and “The Legend of the Cossack War with the Poles...” by Samuil Velichko, “The Chronicle of the Gadyat Colonel Grigory Grabyanka”, the Lviv and Gustyn Chronicles.

As for the period of Kievan Rus, when the concepts of “Ukraine” and “Ukrainians” did not yet exist, the inhabitants of these lands are described in the “Tale of Bygone Years”, in the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, in the Kievan and Galician-Volyn Chronicles.

Based on all of the above books, a modern idea of ​​the history of Ukraine and Russia has been compiled. In addition, they partially describe events concerning the inhabitants of present-day Belarus, Lithuania and Poland.

History of Ukraine since ancient times

The first representatives of the human species appeared here about a million years ago, during the Early Paleolithic era. After analyzing the found remains of dwellings and tools, scientists came to the conclusion that Pithecanthropus (namely, they can be considered the first Ukrainians) chose Transcarpathia, Transnistria, the Zhytomyr region and Donbass.

But no evidence of Homo erectus living on these lands has been found. But Neanderthals successfully populated the south of modern Ukraine and lived there until the 35th millennium BC. e., after which they were supplanted by Homo sapiens.

In 5-3 thousand BC. e. The Dnieper-Donetsk culture was formed here, and a little later it was supplanted by the Sredny Stog culture.

During the Chalcolithic and Neolithic times, the Trypillian, and later the Yamnaya, Catacomb and Middle Dnieper cultures began to play a dominant role.

About 1.5 thousand BC. e. The first nomadic tribes, the Cimmerians, settled in the steppe part of Ukraine. However, by the 7th century. they are supplanted by the Scythians, who have the honor of being the first to form a full-fledged state in this territory.

In parallel with them, the Greeks began to populate the Black Sea coast.

By the 2nd century. BC e. In this region, the Sarmatians are gaining strength. They manage to oust the Scythians and for a long time take over the power in these and neighboring lands. Mentions of the Sarmatians are found in Greek and Roman authors (Herodotus, Pliny the Younger, Tacitus). By the way, in their books they also talk about another mythical people - the Wends; some consider them the ancestors of the Slavs. According to Tacitus, they lived in close proximity to the Sarmatians and adopted a lot from them.

In the 3rd century. already n. e. the Goths come here and organize their state. However, as with all their predecessors, there is a more numerous people - the Huns, who, by the right of the strong, destroy their power and organize their own. In turn, they receive a scolding from the Romans and disperse.

Fortunately, for the Slavic tribes (Ants and Sklavins), who are gradually settling in these lands, a crisis begins in the Roman Empire, and there is no time for distant provinces. Therefore, the Slavs multiply, form their own culture, languages ​​and break up into smaller tribes - Polyans, Drevlyans, Dulebs, Croats, Northerners, Buzhans, Tivertsy, Ulichi, Volynians.

It was not destined to coexist peacefully for a long time, since they soon fell under the influence of the Avar, and then the Khazar Khaganate, which conquered it.

The official history of Ukraine calls the emergence of Kievan Rus the next stage. But it was fully formed only in the 9th century, while the unification of the East Slavic tribes took place 2 centuries earlier. Considering the realities of that time, in order not to be enslaved or destroyed, the Slavs had to form at least a minimal semblance of a power, otherwise they would not have been able to hold out for these 200 years.

Therefore, there is a theory that before the emergence of the Kyiv State, the Slavs still had some kind of state. However, with the coming to power of the Ruriks, they tried to destroy all mentions of him. After all, the prince and his family were actually invaders.

The pro-Rurik chronicles say that their power arose on the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” somewhere in the 9th century. This means that the Slavs had previously learned to trade very well, and with Byzantium. To do this simply to scattered tribes that were not part of the state was problematic. So there is a very high probability of the existence of some kind of pagan Slavic power (possibly a tribal association). It was she who attracted Rurik, who seized power in it, ordering the death of Askold and Dir, who had previously ruled here.

Kievan Rus

The next important stage in the history of ancient Ukraine is the formation on its territory of the first full-fledged Slavic state - Kievan Rus.

The beginning of its existence is associated with the Rurik dynasty. Oleg is considered the first prince, despite the fact that he ruled not on his own behalf, but on behalf of Rurik’s son, the young Igor. But the merit of the Prophetic Oleg is in strengthening and developing the country, as well as in winning recognition for it from Byzantium and the final liberation from tribute to the Khazar Kaganate.

After Oleg, Igor reigned in Kyiv; in the chronicles he is characterized as a greedy and stupid ruler. But his wife Olga, who took the reins of power after his death, showed herself to be an excellent politician, managing to preserve and increase the influence of Rus'. She was the first of the rulers to become an Orthodox Christian. In any case, from the Ruryukov dynasty, because there is information that Askold and Dir were also Christians. If this is true, then Prince Vladimir did not bring this faith, but only legitimized its existence.

The son of Igor and Olga, Svyatoslav, like his father, was not a very good ruler, but he distinguished himself as a commander.

After his death, a struggle for power began between the heirs, in which the son of the slave, Vladimir, won. It was the years of his reign and that of his son Yaroslav that are considered the golden age in the history of Kievan Rus. At this time, it not only turns into a strong independent state, but also gains recognition in the world political arena.

Yaroslav's heirs turned out to be not so skillful rulers, and in the coming years the state disintegrated, and its lands were divided between the neighboring principalities: Kyiv, Chernigov, Galician, Vladimir-Volynsky, Pereyaslavl and partly Turovo-Pinsky.

The raids of nomads weakened these small powers, and by the 13th century. they were finally conquered by the Golden Horde, turning into its tributaries.

By the beginning of the 14th century. In the region, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania strengthens its power and ability to resist the Horde, which annexed the Kyiv, Chernigov, Volyn and Galician lands.

Also, for the first time, the Principality of Moscow begins to appear in the political arena, which takes Bukovina for itself. And Transcarpathia finds itself in the power of the Hungarian Kingdom.

Kazaccina

The next stage in the history of Ukraine is associated with the Kingdom of Poland, which from the 15th-16th centuries. began to conquer neighboring lands. One of the first to fall under his influence was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which included most of the Ukrainian lands. The Union of Lublin in 1569 united Polish and Lithuanian lands as part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Despite the federal structure, in practice, the greatest benefit went to the Polish side, which annexed the Kiev region, Volyn, Podlasie, Podolia and Bratslav region.

For the common people, joining Poland only made their situation worse. Like the Lithuanian nobility, the Polish were unable to protect peasant settlements from the attacks of the steppe inhabitants, which did not prevent them from levying tribute on them. To prevent possible uprisings, religious reforms began to be carried out. However, this caused fierce resistance not only from the common people, but also from the gentry.

The current situation provoked the emergence of the Cossacks. Tired of the Polish yoke and the constant attacks of the Tatars and Turks, the men began to leave their homes and build military settlements in inaccessible places - Sich. And the soldiers living and studying here were called Cossacks. They became a mobile army that not only defended the lands of the future Ukraine from the raids of the steppes, but also caused a lot of trouble to the authorities of both the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Moscow State.

The number and skill of the Cossacks grew, and they actually created a Cossack state within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Their army now not only defended itself from the Turks and Tatars, but also began to organize annual raids on their largest trading cities, freeing their compatriots who had been driven into slavery, and at the same time making good money from it.

Such a policy was beneficial to everyone, but the enrichment and strengthening of the positions of the Cossack army caused concern among the gentry. She tried to take control of them and use them for her own purposes. Thus, during the time of Hetman Sagaidachny, the Poles, with the help of the Cossack troops, not only conquered the lands of the Chernigov principality from the Moscow kingdom, but also almost conquered its capital.

The revolt that the Cossack leader Bogdan Khmelnytsky raised in 1648 was an important event in the history of Ukraine. Preparations for it did not last long and were kept secret, so it came as a surprise to the Polish gentry.

The rebels were successful, and by the end of the year they took control of most of the Ukrainian lands.

Since the Cossacks did not set themselves the goal of destroying the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, but only to win back their own, they stopped there, made peace and began organizing their own state.

Taking advantage of the truce, the Poles gathered their forces and by 1651 managed to recapture part of the lost territories.

For the next 3 years, the Cossack elite tried to preserve their state, but faced the need to either return under the rule of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, or find another ally. Khmelnitsky chose the second option and in 1654 concluded an agreement on the annexation of the Cossack lands to the Moscow kingdom.

Hetmanate and Little Russia

The Pereyaslav Rada, after which the Cossack lands became part of Muscovy, is still considered a black day in the history of Ukraine. Russian historians look at this event more positively.

In fairness, it is worth noting that although Ukraine ultimately lost a lot when it became part of the Russian Empire, we do not know what would have happened to its people if the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had conquered it. Perhaps the Zaporozhye Sich would have been destroyed not during the time of Catherine II, but much earlier. And although many researchers of the history of Ukraine vehemently criticize Bohdan Khmelnytsky, at that time the hetman was forced to choose the lesser evil.

Having united, the Cossack and Moscow troops managed to weaken the Poles in a few years, and in future centuries the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was never able to recover.

As a result of the Truce of Andrusovo in 1667, Ukraine was divided along the Dnieper. Its left part remained with the Moscow kingdom, began to be called the Hetmanate and was governed by Cossack elders, and the right part - with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

In future years, the hetmans' power over Left Bank Ukraine gradually weakened. This was largely due to the struggle for power after the death of Khmelnitsky.

It is important to note that after the war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772-1795. the recaptured Right Bank was annexed to Little Russia (as the Hetmanate began to be called). In addition, after the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. it included lands in the lower reaches of the Dnieper, the Azov region and Crimea. So it was the Russian Empire that helped unite most of the Ukrainian lands together, on paper. For in real life, in all wars, the Russian troops included Cossacks, so they paid with blood for this reunion.

In order to strengthen the empire, Catherine II deprived the Cossack elite of power in her lands, and also ordered the destruction of the Zaporozhye Sich, which is considered the end of the Cossack region as such.

Looking at this fact from a different angle, one can notice that the Little Russian gentry received very generous compensation for their compliance and the fact that they did not start another rebellion, for which Catherine’s reign was famous.

From the end of the 18th century. Ukraine finally became Little Russia and lost any independence. However, this somehow stimulated the development of national consciousness among its elite. The children and grandchildren of the gentry, who “sold” the remnants of Cossack autonomy to Catherine, began to dream of returning what they had lost. In the coming years, numerous cultural and then political organizations begin to form, striving to create their own state.

Despite the prohibitions of the Little Russian language, poets and historians write books in it and secretly distribute them. It was during this period that the first attempts to fully describe the history of Ukraine in Russian and Ukrainian appeared.

The same thing happened in Galicia. After the division of Poland, this part of Ukraine went to the Austrian Empire. Despite this, its residents also sought independence and the right to use their native language.

By the beginning of the twentieth century. in all Ukrainian lands there was a desire to secede, and the First World War and the Revolution of 1917 provided such an opportunity.

The emergence of the Ukrainian state

If we talk briefly about the history of Ukraine after the February Revolution, it is important to mention that during those 3 years of relative independence, as many as 16 states arose on its territory. So the joke from “Wedding in Malinovka”: “The government is changing again” was not at all funny for the inhabitants of these territories.

After the liquidation of the Russian Empire during the February Revolution of 1917, the Central Rada of Ukraine was formed in Kyiv, which took power into its own hands. It was headed by the author of the 10th monograph mentioned above - M. Grushevsky.

Already by November 1917, the Central Republic proclaimed the Ukrainian People's Republic, which included 9 provinces.

With the Bolsheviks coming to power in St. Petersburg, they began to strive to take control of the UPR and by the beginning of 1918 they were able to seize power in Kyiv, and soon throughout Ukraine, making Kharkov the capital.

However, the heads of the CR signed an agreement with Germany, whose troops helped recapture Kyiv. They could not stay at the helm for long, and power in the country was seized by the self-proclaimed Hetman Skoropadsky, proclaiming the Ukrainian state.

After the defeat of the Germans in the First World War, their troops left the territory, and everyone who wanted to lead the newly formed state had to achieve this on their own. The most prominent participants in this struggle were Vladimir Vinnichenko, Simon Petliura, General Denikin and the Bolsheviks.

Despite desperate resistance, by the end of 1922 most of the Ukrainian lands came under the rule of the latter and were soon incorporated into the USSR as the Ukrainian SSR.

Under the shadow of the hammer and sickle

Having become part of the Soviet Union, Ukraine remained a part of it until 1991.

The Ukrainians did not immediately come to terms with this situation, and riots broke out in this territory for the first decade. In fairness, it is important to note that they were most often caused by banal dissatisfaction with economic policy, and not by national issues. To stop them, the USSR authorities took tough measures. In particular, many Ukrainians were forcibly resettled to Siberia, and those who were especially zealous were shot. The repressions affected all segments of the population: peasants, workers, and the intellectual elite. The Holodomor of 1932-1933 is considered their peak. when the Ukrainian peasants were robbed of their entire harvest and left to die of hunger.

The outbreak of World War II brought certain “dividends” to the Ukrainian SSR. The division of Poland by Hitler and Stalin made it possible to annex the so-called Western Ukraine, and a little later Northern Bukovina and the southern part of Bessarabia.

With the beginning of the German offensive against the Soviet Union, the Ukrainian SSR, along with the BSSR, was one of the first republics to be occupied and remained so until 1944. According to official data alone, 5 million people died over these years, not counting the 2 million deported to Germany.

In addition, during the Great Patriotic War in the Ukrainian SSR there was a parallel civil war. Many supporters of independence put their trust in the German authorities, who promised freedom in exchange for help. Thus, Ukrainians fought on the side of both the USSR and Nazi Germany, that is, in fact, with each other.

There is a theory that the authorities of the Soviet Union deliberately allowed such a long occupation of the territory of the Ukrainian SSR in order to use the hands of enemies to deal with the most active citizens who were capable of rebelling against themselves. This version is supported by the fact that the entire territory of the Ukrainian SSR was somehow very quickly surrendered to the enemy within a year, but for some reason he was unable to advance further, although Moscow was just a stone’s throw away.

However, if we believe that this was a targeted genocide, then it extended not only to Ukrainians, but also to Belarusians, as well as the Baltic countries that were annexed a little earlier (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), whose citizens were very cool towards Soviet power.

Whether there is at least some truth in all this will probably remain one of the unsolved mysteries of the history of Ukraine. Another thing is important: Ukrainians were able to survive this terrible war, and after several decades - achieve independence.

Summing up the years spent as part of the USSR, it is worth noting that there were also positive moments for Ukraine. So, at this time, a compulsory education system was established, and now even the poorest segments of the population had the opportunity to study. In addition, the industrialization process helped to develop the industry of the Ukrainian SSR quite well, and many of the developments of this period are still in use.

Goodbye USSR. Hello Europe

Since the formation of a sovereign state in 1991, Ukraine has gone through a lot. The process of transition from a socialist economic system to a capitalist one has not yet been completed and continues to be painful.

Despite this, the country is developing and trying to focus on the EU, with all its advantages and disadvantages. So in 2014, an Association Agreement was signed with him, which, in theory, should have a positive impact on the country’s economy in the future.

In 2017, Ukraine introduced a visa-free regime for 30 European countries, where Ukrainians can now freely travel with only one foreign passport. All that’s left to do is to raise the real level of income of citizens so that they can take advantage of new opportunities. Moreover, today, when leaving the country even for a couple of days, you need to get your credit history in order.

During the years of independence, Ukraine has experienced 2 revolutions: Orange and Dignity. Both were associated with the figure of the country's former president, Viktor Yanukovych.

Interesting facts

Among the most common questions that schoolchildren seek answers to in the State Historical Library on the history of Ukraine is the origin of this toponym. It was first mentioned in the Ipatiev Chronicle in 1187. Moreover, we are not talking about the state, but about the vast border territory, that is, about the outskirts. Hence the name. By the way, for many centuries Ukraine was considered not a country, but rather the name of a no-man’s land. Therefore, in Russian, Polish and some other languages, a tradition has formed of speaking and writing next to it the preposition “on” and not “in”. At the moment, the use of “in” is encouraged in official documentation, but the rules of Russian grammar are still on the side of “on”.

With the light hand of N. Gogol, many have the impression of this country as a place where a lot of evil spirits live. And although this is not entirely true, many mystical stories about Ukraine and its inhabitants have survived to this day. Moreover, today a route has been developed for tourists through the most mysterious places of this country. This is not only Bald Mountain in Kyiv, but also Podgoretsky, Zolochevsky and Olesko castles, Solominskoe Lake, Hitler’s abandoned headquarters in the Vinnytsia region, a haunted house in Ternopil, as well as a cemetery with a vampire in Ivano-Frankivsk. Whether all these places are truly inhabited by otherworldly entities, or whether this is a clever trick to attract tourists - everyone decides for himself.

The years spent as a republic of the USSR largely influenced the territorial composition of this country. In recent years, Crimean history has been actively discussed. Let us recall that in 1954 the Crimean Peninsula was withdrawn from the Russian Federal SSR and transferred to the Ukrainian SSR. After the collapse of the Union, the Russian Federation repeatedly stated that this transfer was illegal, and by 2014 Russia was able to annex Crimea back to itself. We will not discuss the legality/illegality of this act. Let us pay attention to one myth, due to which a misconception may be formed about the history of the composition of Ukraine. So, there is a version that in exchange for Crimea, part of the territory (Taganrog and its environs) was torn away from the Ukrainian SSR, equal to the area of ​​the annexed peninsula. However, this is not quite true. The above-mentioned lands were indeed “expropriated” by the RFSSR from the Ukrainian SSR, but this happened back in 1928 - that is, 26 years before the annexation of Crimea. So there was no exchange as such. By the way, the procedure itself for transferring the peninsula to the Ukrainian SSR, in the opinion of most adequate Russian and Ukrainian historians, complied with the legal norms of the Soviet Union. As for the moral side of the issue, for some reason everyone forgets that Crimea is an original Tatar land. But that's another story.

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The famous Polish poet Adam Mickiewicz once imagined Ukraine as a “steppe ocean”, in which ancient burial mounds are sometimes found. However, now Ukraine is not only endless steppes with Scythian mounds. Ukraine now has many very interesting historical and architectural attractions, ski and balneological resorts in the Carpathians, as well as beach resorts on the shores of the Azov and Black Seas, including, of course, Crimea.

Geography of Ukraine

Ukraine is located in Eastern Europe. In the west, Ukraine borders with Poland, Slovakia and Hungary, in the southwest with Romania and Moldova, in the northwest with Belarus, and in the east and northeast with Russia. In the southeast, Ukraine is washed by the waters of the Sea of ​​Azov, and in the south by the Black Sea. The total area of ​​this country is 603,628 square meters. km., and the total length of the border is 16,500 km.

The territory of Ukraine is dominated by flat landscape (steppes), but there are also many forests. In the west of the country are the Carpathian Mountains, and in the south are the Crimean Mountains. The highest peak in Ukraine is Mount Hoverla in the Carpathians, whose height reaches 2,061 meters.

The largest Ukrainian rivers are the Seversky Donets and the Southern Bug. Dniester, and, of course, Dnieper.

There are several large natural lakes in Ukraine - Yalpug, Cahul, Kugurluy, Katlabukh and China. All these lakes are located in the south of Ukraine in the Odessa region.

Capital of Ukraine

The capital of Ukraine is Kyiv, which is now home to almost 3 million people. Archaeologists believe that an urban settlement on the territory of modern Kyiv existed already in the 6th-7th centuries AD.

Official language

The official language in Ukraine is Ukrainian, which belongs to the East Slavic languages ​​of the Indo-European language family.

Religion

Almost 90% of the inhabitants of Ukraine are Christians. The vast majority of them are Orthodox Christians belonging to the Greek Catholic Church. Western Ukraine is populated mostly by Catholics, while Crimea has many Muslims.

State structure of Ukraine

According to the 1996 Constitution, Ukraine is a parliamentary republic, in which the head is the President, elected by direct popular vote for a 5-year term.

Legislative power belongs to a unicameral parliament – ​​the Verkhovna Rada. It consists of 450 deputies elected for a 5-year term.

Administratively, Ukraine is divided into 24 regions, 2 cities with regional status (Kyiv and Sevastopol), and one autonomous republic (Crimea).

Climate and weather

The climate in Ukraine is mainly temperate continental, but on the southern coast of Crimea the climate is humid subtropical. The average annual temperature ranges from +5.5C to +7C in the north, and from +11C to +13C in the south.

In Western Ukraine, precipitation is 1,200 mm per year, and in Crimea - 400 mm per year.

Average air temperature in Kyiv:

• January - -6C
• February - -5C
• March - 0С
• April - +8C
• May - +15C
• June - +19C
• July - +20.5C
• August - +19C
• September - +13C
• October - +8C
• November - +2C
• December - -2.5C

Sea in Ukraine

In the southeast, Ukraine is washed by the waters of the Sea of ​​Azov, and in the south by the Black Sea. The total length of the coastline is 2,782 kilometers. The average temperature of the Black Sea on the southern coast of Crimea in July is +24C.

Rivers and lakes of Ukraine

One of the largest rivers in Europe flows through the territory of Ukraine - the Dnieper, which flows into the Black Sea. Other large Ukrainian rivers are the Seversky Donets, the Southern Bug and the Dniester.

In the south of Ukraine in the Odessa region there are several large natural lakes - Yalpug, Cahul, Kugurluy, Katlabukh and China.

Story

In the VI-III millennium BC. e. (i.e. in the Chalcolithic era) the archaeological Trypillian culture existed on Ukrainian lands. During the Iron Age, Cimmerians, Scythians and Sarmatians lived in Ukraine.

In 700-200 BC. in the Ukrainian steppes there was the Scythian kingdom (Scythia). From the 6th century BC. On the Ukrainian coast of the Black Sea, the ancient Greeks founded their colonies - Olbia, Tyre, Borysthenes, Kerkinitis, Chersonese Tauride, Feodosia, Panticapaeum, Nymphaeum, etc.

In the 9th century, on the territory of modern Ukraine, a Slavic state was formed - Kievan Rus. The political capital of Kievan Rus was the city of Kyiv. It is believed that the first rulers of Kievan Rus were the Varangians - Rurik, Askold, Dir and Oleg. Kievan Rus consisted of several principalities - Kiev, Chernigov, Smolensk, Vladimir-Suzdal, Polotsk, Galicia-Volyn principality, etc.

The “Golden Age” of Kievan Rus occurred during the reign of princes Vladimir the Great and Yaroslav the Wise. It was under Vladimir the Great that the baptism of Kievan Rus took place according to the Byzantine rite.

The Tatar-Mongol invasions of the 13th century devastated Kievan Rus. Tatar-Mongol power was established over most of the principalities.

Since the 14th century, most of Ukraine was under the control of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Since 1569 (after the Union of Lublin) Ukraine came under Polish rule. During this period, the Cossacks were formed in Ukraine. The Zaporozhye Sich was formed on the Dnieper (it later changed its location several times). In fact, the Zaporozhye Sich was a kind of Ukrainian knightly order. In the history of Ukraine, the Zaporozhye Sich played a very important role.

The Cossacks sought to have their representation in the Polish Sejm, advocated the preservation of their Orthodox traditions, and also tried to expand their register. However, the Polish nobility rejected these demands, and the Ukrainian Cossacks were forced to turn to Russia.

In 1648, an anti-Polish uprising of Cossacks and peasants led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky began in Ukraine. In 1654, at the Pereyaslav Rada, Ukrainians spoke out in favor of a military-political alliance with Russia.

In the Middle Ages, the troops of the Crimean khans made numerous raids on the territory of modern Ukraine. For several centuries, the Crimean Khanate was a real problem for Ukraine. However, the Zaporozhye Cossacks successfully resisted the Crimean Tatars, and even made their own campaigns in Crimea and the Ottoman Empire.

In 1764, the Russian Empire abolished the Hetmanate (as the Ukrainian state was then called), and in 1775 the Zaporozhye Sich was liquidated. In 1783, the Crimean Khanate (Crimea) became part of Russia.

The independence of Ukraine was declared only in January 1918. However, after the First World War, several forces fought for political power on the territory of Ukraine, and as a result, the Bolshevik Communist Party won - the Ukrainian Soviet Republic was formed.

In 1922, the Ukrainian SSR became part of the USSR. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, a violent city erupted in Ukraine, killing millions of people. In 1934, Kyiv became the capital of the Ukrainian SSR (instead of Kharkov).

During World War II, Ukraine was occupied by German troops. Only by the end of 1944 did the Red Army manage to liberate Ukraine from German troops.

In 1954, Crimea was included in the Ukrainian SSR.

On April 26, 1986, a reactor at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant exploded in the Ukrainian SSR, and this became the largest man-made disaster in the world.

In August 1991, the independent Republic of Ukraine was proclaimed.

Culture of Ukraine

Modern Ukrainians are proud of their traditions and customs. As in other countries, in Ukraine folk customs and traditions are preserved in villages. However, residents of Ukrainian cities still adhere to basic folk traditions.

Most holidays in Ukraine are related to religion (Easter, Christmas, Epiphany, Maslenitsa), but, of course, there are many public holidays. On the eve of the Old New Year (January 13), Ukrainian children and teenagers “carol” (“generous”) - i.e. they go from house to house, sing old folk carols and receive for it candies, cookies, sweets, apples, tangerines, etc.

The most famous Ukrainian poets and writers are Taras Shevchenko, Grigory Skovoroda, Ivan Franko, Ostap Vishnya, Panteleimon Kulish, Ivan Franko, Lesya Ukrainka, Nikolai Gogol.

Kitchen

Ukrainians are hospitable people, and they are always happy to treat their guests to something delicious. The main food products of Ukrainians are meat (pork), lard, vegetables, potatoes, fish, and dairy products.

We definitely advise tourists in Ukraine to try dumplings with cherries, borscht with sour cream and garlic, cabbage, cheesecakes, pancakes, jellied meat, Kiev cutlets, cabbage rolls with meat, soup with dumplings, buckwheat and watermelon porridge, pies with various stuffing, potato pancakes and much more.

The traditional Ukrainian alcoholic drink is “gorilka” (vodka), the production of which in Ukraine began in the Middle Ages.

Sights of Ukraine

Despite the fact that Ukraine has experienced a large number of wars, this country has preserved many historical and architectural sights.

In our opinion, the top ten most interesting Ukrainian attractions include the following:

Cities and resorts

The largest Ukrainian cities are Kharkov, Donetsk, Zaporozhye, Odessa, Lvov, Dnepropetrovsk, and, of course, Kyiv.

Almost the entire coast of the Black Sea and the Sea of ​​Azov turns into a large resort in summer. The most popular beach resorts on the Black Sea coast are in Crimea - Yalta, Alushta, Alupka, Gaspra, Gurzuf, Foros, Partenit, Kerch, Simeiz, Koktebel, Feodosia, Sudak, Saki, Evpatoria.

On the Ukrainian coast of the Sea of ​​Azov, tourists prefer to relax in Berdyansk, Kirillovka, Genichesk, Primorsk, on the Arabat Spit and in New Yalta.

In winter, Ukrainians and foreign tourists go on vacation to the ski resorts of Western Ukraine. The most popular of them are Bukovel, Dragobrat, Izki, Pylypets, Sinyak, Slavske, Dynamo-Trostyan and Play.

There are many mineral springs in Ukraine, so this country has excellent balneological resorts - Truskavets, Morshyn, Solotvyno, Shayan, Khmelnik and Mirgorod. Most of the Ukrainian balneological resorts are located in Western Ukraine, but there are also quite a lot of them in other parts of this country (for example, in the Crimea - Saki, Sudak, Evpatoria).

Office hours

Banks:
Mon-Fri: 09:00-18:00
Sat: 09:00-13:00

The shops:
Mon-Fri: 09:00-19:00
Supermarkets are open from 8 am to 11 pm. Some supermarkets are open 24 hours a day.

Currency of Ukraine

The monetary unit in Ukraine is the Ukrainian hryvnia (its international designation is UAH). 1 hryvnia = 100 kopecks. All major cards are widely used in Ukraine, including MasterCard and Visa.

Customs restrictions

In Ukraine there are no restrictions on the import and export of local and foreign currency, but an amount of 10 thousand euros or more must be declared.

It is prohibited to export objects of history and art from Ukraine without special permission. Otherwise, the violator faces criminal prosecution.

Emergency numbers

101 – Fire service
102 – Police
103 – Ambulance
104 - Ministry of Emergency Situations

Tips

Tipping in Ukraine is 5-10% of the bill. Sometimes tips are already included in the bill. Taxi drivers will also be grateful for your tips.

When did Ukraine emerge as a state itself? With clear borders, its own capital and other attributes of independence. Look at the pictures and see the inexorability of history.

Maybe Ukraine arose in ancient times? 3rd-2nd century BC:

Oops. Some kind of Roksolans. Sarmatia. Or is it them?)))

Or maybe at the very end of that era?

Oh, Scythians. It is Ukraine? Yes, probably. There is one common letter in the name - it’s I))) No, not that...

Maybe in the 600s AD?

Bulgars, go away you disgusting people. This is Ukraine! It can’t be, there must be Ukrainians somewhere here.

But, probably... Formation of the state of Rus'. Come on, Ukraine should be inside...

Not again. This mess. I will complain..

And this is about 1054-1132. When the route from the Varangians to the Greeks arose, there was a great transit and the rapid creation of a powerful state. But no, not Ukraine again) Why so unlucky...

1237 I’ll take a magnifying glass, there’s definitely Ukraine somewhere here. Where are you, the very country?

There is Kyiv, Chernigov. And the state of Ukraine - nope... Oh, what do I see here - the Principality of Galicia-Volyn? So maybe Ukraine is not Ukraine, but Galicia?

By 1252, this is how there was no Ukraine either:

And here is Galitsynskoye! state. Oh, well then yes.

Let's continue to look for Ukraine as a state, but already from 1200 to 1920, when it was formed as a republic of the USSR.

1. In the 12th century, a terrible fragmentation of Russian lands began. The infighting led to the weakening of defenses against the horde. Of course, there is no Ukraine. And even the land of Kiev, as we see on the map, IS NOT A STATE!:

2. The territory of the Horde, or the Tatar-Mongol invasion or simply enslavement of 1243-1438. Highlighted in yellow:

3. And this is the Principality of Lithuania at the beginning of the 13th century. Then it will be seen how, thanks to the fact that Rus' held back the Horde, it will crawl to the Black Sea. This is what infighting leads to. That is, what can await current Ukraine.

4. This is the entire Principality of Lithuania in the 13-15 centuries. Maybe Ukraine is Lithuania? European Union)))

5. This is in 1387 Lithuania together with Poland:

6. And in 1600 Poland already occupied Lithuania. Ay yay) But from sea to sea it didn’t work out. I couldn't:

7. Territory!, not the country of Ukraine, which passed to Rus' under the Andrusovo truce with Poland in 1667.

8. The Polish map even shows lands like Ukraine. Also 1667. By the way, part of it is in Poland, part of it is in Rus'. But the Zaporozhye Cossacks are also on it:

9. Map of 1695. There are no significant changes. I mean the lands of Ukraine:

10. It’s already more interesting here. In the years 1772-1795, Russia, Prussia and Austria tore Poland apart in three stages. Under the root. In the red circle, according to the years that Russia lost:

11. And in 1807 Napoleon recreated Poland in order to pinch Prussia, the future Germany. She's having no luck. But Russia - Ukraine again returned to Kyiv, division along the Dnieper:

12. It didn't last long. In 1815 everything returned. Like children, by God. Just to kill people.

It’s hard to see on the map, look along the Dnieper River.